The Encyclopedia of Spices and Herbs: An Essential Guide to the Flavors of the World - Padma Lakshmi (2016)

SPICES, HERBS, AND BLENDS FROM A TO Z

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PREVIOUS SPREAD, CLOCKWISE FROM BOTTOM LEFT: winter savory; saffron; star anise, sambar powder, salam leaves (ON PLATE); sage; ground sumac; sesame seeds; shichimi togarashi; summer savory; and sumac berries

SAFFRON

BOTANICAL NAME: Crocus sativus

FORMS: threads and ground

The most expensive spice in the world, saffron comes from a species of crocus believed to be native to Asia Minor and Greece. Its history extends back at least to the tenth century BC. It has been known in most of the countries surrounding the Mediterranean since ancient times, used as a spice and a dye as well as for its medicinal benefits. It was prized by Phoenician traders and by the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians, and it is mentioned in the Old Testament. Saffron has been cultivated in India for centuries, and India is one of the major producers today, along with Spain and Iran.

Saffron is the dried stigmas of the crocus flower, and it takes more than one hundred thousand flowers to produce one pound of saffron. Each flower has only three stigmas, and these are attached at the bottom of the flower with a pale thread that is called a style. Harvesting saffron is a demanding, painstaking process. The harvest is in the fall, and the flowers are picked early in the morning, to avoid the heat of the sun. Then the stigmas are removed by hand, traditionally by all the women, young and old, of the town. Still attached to the style, the stigmas are then dried, often still over charcoal or in the sun, the traditional methods.

Most grades of saffron will have some of the styles attached; very high-quality versions have had the styles removed. Because of the cost (the price of saffron can be close to half of that of gold by weight), both whole threads and ground saffron have been known to be adulterated—safflower stigmas, the most likely culprit, look somewhat similar but have none of the flavor of the real thing. Dried saffron stigmas are red or red-orange, and the styles are lighter; the deeper the color of the threads, the better. Ground saffron is also marketed, but it is preferable to buy the whole threads and pulverize them at home, both for their fresher flavor and because of the possibility of the preground version being adulterated. Saffron has a distinctive musky, woody fragrance and a pungent, bitter taste. The best Spanish saffron, or azafrán, comes from La Mancha, and some believe this is the best in the world, but saffron from Kashmir in India is also very good, as is some of the saffron from Iran.

Saffron’s color is water-soluble, and it adds a beautiful yellow tone as well as its flavor to a wide variety of dishes. Spain’s paella is one of the most notable of these, along with Italy’s risotto alla Milanese and France’s bouillabaisse, the traditional seafood stew; it also flavors zarzuela, the Spanish version of that classic. Fortunately, only a pinch is necessary for most recipes (and too much can add a bitter taste, so it should always be used sparingly). The threads are usually soaked in warm water or another liquid to soften them and bring out the color and then added, with the liquid, to the pot; ground saffron can be added directly to a dish as it cooks. In India, saffron seasons rice and chicken, as well as rich Moghul-style preparations, and it flavors sweet custards and yogurt drinks or desserts. In England, the spice was cultivated in Essex in the Middle Ages, and it is still used in Britain to make traditional saffron cakes. Chartreuse and some other liqueurs are flavored with saffron. It is also used in a traditional Persian stew called koresh and a rice dish called polow.

MEDICINAL USES: Saffron is traditionally prescribed for digestive and urinary tract disorders, coughs, and asthma.

SAGE

BOTANICAL NAME: Salvia officinalis

FORMS: fresh and rubbed or ground dried leaves

Sage, another member of the mint family, is a perennial shrub that is indigenous to the Mediterranean coastal regions of southern Europe; today the best is said to come from Dalmatia, in Croatia, and garden sage is sometimes called Dalmatian sage. There are many varieties, but most have fuzzy green or greenish-gray leaves. Sage is one of the most aromatic of the Mediterranean herbs, with a warm, pungent fragrance and a fresh, strong, even somewhat medicinal taste. Its Latin name comes from the word salver, which means “to save” or “to heal,” and sage was prized for its medicinal properties for centuries before it became a favorite culinary herb. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and in the Middle Ages, tea made with sage was prescribed for many ills all around the Mediterranean; the Chinese were also enamored of Europe’s sage tea.

When sage is dried, its taste becomes, if anything, more concentrated. The more common form is “rubbed” sage, crumbled dried leaves, but it is also available ground; rubbed sage has more flavor and keeps its flavor longer. Bunches of dried Greek sage still on the stems can be found in some specialty markets. Sage is an essential seasoning in the stuffing for the Thanksgiving turkey, of course, and onions sautéed with sage are the base for many savory dishes. It goes well with fatty meats like pork, as well as with game such as duck and goose, and is often used to flavor sausages. Sage is also good in bean dishes and hearty soups and stews. It pairs well with other strong Mediterranean herbs such as rosemary, thyme, oregano, and bay, and it features in many herb blends. Sage Derby, a mild cow’s-milk cheese marbled with sage, is a favorite in England.

SALAM LEAVES

BOTANICAL NAME: Syzygium polyanthum (formerly Eugenia polyantha)

OTHER NAMES: Indonesian bay leaves, daun salam, salaam leaves

FORMS: fresh and dried

Salam leaves are sometimes referred to as Indonesian bay leaves (daun salam is their name in Indonesia), but they are in an unrelated species and the flavor is quite different from that of bay laurel leaves. However, the fresh or dried leaves are used in the same ways as true bay leaves. They are common in Indonesian and Malaysian cuisines but are little known outside their native habitat. The dried leaves are aromatic with a mild citrusy, somewhat tart flavor. They are best in soups, stews, and other long-simmered preparations. They also season nasi goreng, Indonesia’s version of fried rice and its best-known dish.

SALT

Salt is, of course, a mineral, not a spice, but it is a seasoning we can’t do without. It’s also essential to life; our bodies need salt. And it is one of the four basic tastes: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter (more recently, a fifth taste, umami, has been recognized). The use of salt can be traced back to Neolithic times. It was so highly valued by the early Romans that soldiers were paid in part with salt (the word salary comes from the Latin salarium, which means, literally, “salt money”).

Culinary salts come from the earth or from the sea. Salt from deposits in the earth is also known as rock salt or halite; these deposits were probably formed through the evaporation of ancient seas. Rock salt is usually mined, though a more modern technique is to inject water into the deposits to dissolve the salt, then process and evaporate the resulting saltwater. Sea salt is harvested by various methods, many of them centuries old. The basic process is to evaporate seawater in pools called salt pans or salt ponds, or in salt marshes; see below for more information on the various techniques used to harvest sea salts.

The chemical name for salt is sodium chloride (NaCl). All salt is crystalline and dissolves easily when exposed to liquids or moisture. Table salt is simply fine rock salt, usually with additives to keep it from clumping; sometimes iodine is also added, though iodine deficiencies are no longer common in the industrialized world. It can taste harsh or bitter, and good cooks and chefs prefer sea salt. Salt from the sea often contains trace amounts of many other minerals, depending on its place of origin—iodine is one of these, found in all sea salt; for more information on the mineral content of various sea salts.

1.Hickory-Smoked Sea Salt (Fine)

2.Hawaiian Sea Salt (Coarse)

3.Himalayan Pink Salt (Coarse)

4.Himalayan Pink Salt (Fine)

5.Himalayan Pink Salt

6.Sel Gris

7.Alder-Smoked Salt

8.Hickory-Smoked Sea Salt (Coarse)

9.Cyprus Sea Salt

10.Hawaiian Sea Salt (Fine)

11.Trapani Sea Salt

12.Murray River Sea Salt

13.Kosher Salt

14.Maine Sea Salt

15.Applewood-Smoked Sea Salt

16.Peruvian Pink Salt

17.Hawaiian Pink Sea Salt

18.Portugese Sea Salt

19.Cherrywood-Smoked Sea Salt

20.Mesquite-Smoked Sea Salt

21.Fleur De Sel

22.Indian Black Salt

23.Indian Black Salt (Fine)

24.Maldon Smoked Sea Salt

25.Maldon Sea Salt

Coarse sea salt is usually used as a “finishing salt”—that is, its crystals are sprinkled over a dish, such as grilled meat or fish, just before serving, so they retain their distinctive flavor and crunch. Some sea salts are good as general seasoning salts as well. For those who prefer to grind the salt more finely onto their food, salt grinders are now widely available. Because salt is a mineral, not a spice, grinding it—as opposed to grinding pepper—just before use has nothing to do with the freshness of its flavor; it’s all about texture (and appearance).

Salt brings out the flavor of any savory ingredient, but it is also important in cookies, cakes, and other desserts. Sweet baked goods made without salt will taste flat. And the salty-sweet contrast appeals to many chocolatiers and consumers—think of the popularity of chocolate-covered caramels garnished with a sprinkling of coarse sea salt, or the now almost ubiquitous salted caramel ice cream.

SMOKED SALTS

Smoked sea salt makes a great finishing salt, but it can also be used as an unusual seasoning salt. The salt is cold-smoked over hardwood until intensely fragrant. Alder is one of the most common woods, but apple, hickory, and mesquite are also used; the Maldon company smokes their sea salt over oak. Some French producers offer fleur de sel or other sea salt smoked over the wood from chardonnay wine casks. Applewood-smoked salt is one of the milder choices, but all smoked salts add a distinctive smoky taste to any dish. Sprinkle some over roasted potatoes or a creamy pasta dish, garnish your next Bloody Mary with a pinch of it, or finish pan-seared fish with a smoked salt (in the Pacific Northwest, salmon smoked on planks of alder is classic, making alderwood-smoked sea salt a natural choice for roasted salmon). Or use it in a rub for grilled or roast meat. On the sweeter side, chocolate truffles sprinkled with smoked salt are delicious.

Note that some smoked salts are made with liquid smoke or a similar flavoring and also include additives; be sure to avoid these and choose real smoked salt instead.

CYPRUS SEA SALT

From the island of Cyprus, this flaky sea salt has unique pyramid-shaped crystals and a mild flavor. It is still harvested using traditional methods. Black Cyprus sea salt, sometimes called black lava salt, gets its color from the addition of activated charcoal (also see Hawaiian Sea Salt). Although Cyprus sea salt can be used for general cooking, its unusual shape and its crunch make it an ideal finishing salt.

FLEUR DE SEL

Fleur de sel is a relatively rare sea salt that comes from the coast of Brittany and the offshore islands, also the source of high-quality sel gris (gray salt). Its name translates from French as “flower of salt,” and it has a lovely floral quality and a pure taste of the ocean. The harvesting process for fleur de sel is even more delicate than that for sel gris. Lighter than gray salt, it floats to the top of the salt flats, and it is removed each day by hand, using small scoops rather than rakes. And, while the harvest for any sea salt is seasonal, the formation of fleur de sel depends on specific climatic conditions, so the harvest is not always reliable. More recently, fleur de sel from Camargue, on France’s Mediterranean Coast, has become available, but purists insist that the salt from Brittany is still the best. Crystals of fleur de sel are small, irregular, and moist. It is always used as a finishing salt, sprinkled over dishes both hot and cold.

HAWAIIAN SEA SALT

There are several different types of Hawaiian sea salt, all of which tend to be quite moist. Red Hawaiian sea salt is the most common. Sometimes called alaea salt, it is mixed with a volcanic clay, alaea, that gives it both its color and added minerals, including iron; this traditional technique dates back centuries. Early Hawaiians believed the clay was sacred, and they used red clay salt for religious rituals as well as for medicinal purposes. White Hawaiian sea salt is simply the pure harvested salt. It is sometimes called white silver sea salt or blue sea salt. Black Hawaiian sea salt has a striking black color. Although it is also called volcanic salt or black lava salt, the color actually comes from added activated charcoal. As a result, it is higher in iron than many sea salts. (If you rub it between your fingers, some of the black color will come off.) All these Hawaiian salts can be found in various textures, from large crystals to finely ground. The red and black salts make particularly distinctive finishing salts, especially sprinkled over white-fleshed fish, chicken, or potatoes. They also complement seafood, of course, and can be used as a rub for grilled or roasted whole fish; poke, the traditional Hawaiian raw fish dish, is seasoned with alaea sea salt. The red salt is sometimes also used as an everyday table salt in Hawaii.

HIMALAYAN PINK SALT

Himalayan pink salt comes from an enormous ancient mine in the Himalayas, and it is one of the purest salts available. Its color, which ranges from pale to deep pink to rose, comes from iron and other trace minerals (it is stocked in many health food stores because of its high mineral content). The salt is still mined by hand, washed, dried, and ground into crystals of various sizes. Try pink salt when salt-roasting whole fish or chicken, or use it as a finishing salt. It can be ground in a salt grinder (choose a clear one, to show off the color) and used as a seasoning in any type of cooking. Some gourmet markets and other online sources now sell beautiful slabs of Himalayan pink salt that can be used for serving hot or cold food (chill the slab first, in that case), imparting a final touch of seasoning.

INDIAN BLACK SALT

Also called Himalayan black salt, and known as kala namak in India, this is a rock salt mined primarily in India and Pakistan. It is not, in fact, black but ranges from pinkish-gray or deep violet to amber or dark brown, the color coming from various trace elements, including iron sulfide. It also has a strong sulfurous odor and taste, from the hydrogen sulfide it contains (think rotten eggs), although much of that dissipates in cooking. Black salt is sold as irregular chunks that can be as large as an inch or more across and is also available finely ground; the ground salt may be pink, brown, or gray. The salt is widely used in Indian and Pakistani cooking. It is an essential ingredient in the seasoning blend chaat masala, and it adds its distinctive flavor to many savory snacks and street foods. It goes well with seafood, and it can be used to season chutneys or relishes and raita, the yogurt-based condiment. Lemonade spiced with black salt is a popular summer drink in India.

KOSHER SALT

Many chefs and home cooks prefer kosher salt to table salt for everyday use. It is coarse and flaky, making it easy to pick up with your fingers for judicious seasoning, and, unlike ordinary table salt, it doesn’t contain additives. It is mild and not as sharp or harsh as table salt; it is also less salty by volume measure (i.e., teaspoon for teaspoon).

MAINE SEA SALT

A number of producers are now harvesting sea salt off the coast of Maine, using traditional methods. The salt is harvested by hand and neither rinsed nor bleached. The irregular crystals are sparkling white and have a clean, briny taste. Maine sea salt is available in medium or coarse grinds. It can be ground in a salt grinder for seasoning at the table, or left in whole crystals and used as a finishing salt—great with lobster!

CURING SALTS

Curing salts are used for charcuterie and other preserved meats. They are a combination of salt and nitrites, which help prevent the growth of bacteria (such as the potentially deadly Clostridium botulinum) in such meats, as well as preserve their rosy color. These salts are always tinted pink to avoid any possible confusion with regular salt, as ingesting more than a tiny quantity of nitrites can be dangerous, and so they are sometimes called pink salt. Other names include Insta Cure #1 and Prague powder. (Hawaiian pink salt and other such pink salts have no relation to curing salts.) Some curing salts, such as Insta Cure #2, also include nitrates; these are usually used for dry-cured sausages, which take longer to cure.

MALDON SEA SALT

Maldon is a large flaky salt that is harvested along England’s Atlantic Coast. It has a delicate briny taste and is a favorite among chefs. Maldon is a trademark, and the Maldon Crystal Salt Company is a family business has been producing its salt in Maldon, Essex, since the late nineteenth century. Maldon makes a delicious finishing salt, especially for potatoes and other vegetable dishes and for grilled fish or poultry. The company also produces a smoked version of its salt.

MURRAY RIVER SEA SALT

This flaky salt comes from Australia’s Murray-Darling Basin in the southeastern state of Victoria. The Murray River is the largest one in Australia and the water in the basin has a high level of salinity; the salt is harvested from underground aquifers. It is a large flaky salt with a lovely pink hue. The flakes are delicate and can even be crushed with your fingertips. The salt dissolves quickly and evenly, and that, in combination with its beautiful color, makes it an excellent finishing salt.

PERUVIAN PINK SALT

Peruvian pink salt comes from underground springs high in the Andes. The salt has been harvested from terraced salt ponds in the Sacred Valley of Incas, near the town of Maras, for centuries, and the same methods are still used today; many of the families here have been salt farmers for generations. (Some packages refer to the salt as sal de los Incas.) The coarse crystals are a very pale pink and have a strong mineral flavor and a nice crunch. Sprinkle over salmon or other fish before grilling or pan-roasting it, grind fine for seasoning all sorts of dishes, or use as a finishing salt.

PORTUGUESE SEA SALT

The salt marshes along Portugal’s Algarve Coast have long been part of the salt trade, but in recent years, small producers have been working to revive the artisanal production of sea salt there, returning to traditional methods similar to those used in France’s Brittany. Portuguese sea salt is white, not gray like Brittany’s sel gris, though the hand-harvested salt is not washed or otherwise processed; it can be found as coarse or fine grains and remains very moist. (Traditionally in Portugal, hand-harvested, unprocessed sea salt is called sal tradicional, or sal marinho tradicional, while machine-harvested salt is called simply sal do mar—although it is not unheard of for sal do mar to be marketed as sal tradicional.) Some artisan producers are also now harvesting flor de sal, the Portuguese version of France’s fleur de sel, again using age-old methods.

Coarse Portuguese sea salt makes a good rub for grilled meat, fish, or poultry, and both the coarse and fine can be used in general cooking; the coarse salt can also be sprinkled over a finished dish before serving. Flor de sal, like fleur de sel, is purely a finishing salt.

SEL GRIS

Sel gris, literally “gray salt,” comes from salt marshes or flats along France’s Atlantic and Mediterranean Coasts. The best is from Brittany, most notably the town of Guérande, and from the islands of Ré and Noirmoutier. It is still harvested by hand, using long-handled rakes, once the seawater evaporates from the shallow salt pans, and it is not washed or processed at all, so it retains all the minerals found in the seawater. Sel gris is a light gray color and is sold as large irregular crystals or more finely ground. It is a very moist salt, briny and slightly tangy. It is used by many French bakers for their artisan breads, and the finer grinds can be used as a general cooking salt. Potatoes roasted on a bed of coarse sel gris are delicious, moist and delicately seasoned; meats can be rubbed with the salt before roasting. Sel gris can also be used for pickling.

Despite its name, the gray salt known as Celtic sea salt comes from Brittany, which was once one of the six Celtic nations. It is light gray and, like other types of sel gris, moist and briny. It comes in coarse and finer grinds. In 1976, the name Celtic Sea Salt was trademarked by a company called Silena Naturally, which promotes the health benefits of the salt.

French sea salt from the Mediterranean coast, in Camargue and Provence, is usually commercially harvested and washed, and it may contain additives. It is readily available in supermarkets now; look for a brand without additives.

TRAPANI SEA SALT

Trapani sea salt comes from the western coast of Sicily, between Trapani and Marsala. It is still harvested by hand from the salt pans. The salt, which is not washed or otherwise processed, is available as coarse or fine grains. It is slightly off-white, with a briny flavor. In Sicily, it is added to the water for blanching vegetables or cooking pasta; elsewhere, it is more often considered a finishing salt, though the fine salt can be used in general cooking, especially for fish and vegetable dishes.

SAMBAR POWDER

The Tamil word for powder is podi, and this South Indian spice blend is usually labeled “sambar powder” (or sambaar or sambhar) in Indian grocery stores. A classic sambar blend starts with dried chiles and coriander seeds and adds cumin, black pepper, and various dals, or dry-roasted dried lentils—typically chana, toor, or urad dal; a more complicated mix might also include fenugreek, black mustard seeds, and/or turmeric. Some versions add sweeter spices like nutmeg, mace, and cinnamon. There are, of course, simpler versions with far fewer ingredients. Fragrant, spicy sambar powder flavors much of the vegetarian fare of the region, especially soups, dals, and other lentil and vegetable dishes; because of the dried lentils it contains, it also acts as a thickening agent. Sambar is also the name of a lentil and vegetable soup eaten all over South India with rice or dosas and idlis; sambar powder is always used to season it, and that may be where the name of the blend originated.

SANSHO PEPPER

See Pepper.

SAUNF

See Anise and Fennel.

SAVORY

BOTANICAL NAMES: Satureja hortensis (summer savory); S. montana (winter savory)

FORMS: fresh and dried leaves

There are two types of savory, a member of the mint family, that are used in cooking: summer, which is an annual, and winter, a perennial. Both are native to the Mediterranean region. Savory is one of the oldest culinary herbs, and the Romans are known to have made a sauce of savory and vinegar. Summer savory, which grows to about 18 inches tall, has small green to dark green leaves and bears white or purple flowers, which are sometimes part of the mix when the herb is dried. It is very fragrant, and its aroma is somewhat peppery, with strong notes of thyme; the taste is also peppery. Winter savory is a smaller plant, with small, shiny, dark green leaves and white flowers when mature; it looks something like thyme at first glance. Its fragrance and flavor are similar to that of summer savory but it has a more pungent bite.

Savory dries well and will keep for months if stored properly. It is sometimes called the bean herb, and it is excellent in dried bean dishes and with other legumes, retaining its flavor even during long simmering. It is also good in stuffings and in sausages and other charcuterie. Generally, the two types can be used interchangeably, but if substituting winter savory in a recipe that calls for the summer herb, you may want to reduce the amount. Savory complements chicken, pork, veal, and beef and can be used in an herb rub or marinade for any of these; it is also good in hearty meat stews. It goes well with trout and other fish, especially when these are grilled. Savory is one of the ingredients in classic herbes de Provence.

SESAME

BOTANICAL NAME: Sesamum indicum

OTHER NAMES: benne, gingelly, til, teel

FORMS: whole seeds

Sesame is an annual indigenous to northern Africa and, some authorities believe, also native to India. It has been grown in Asia for centuries (although it is still considered a “foreign” plant in China), as well as in Indonesia. It is generally considered to be the oldest crop grown for its oil; the oil content of the seeds is very high. Today, sesame is cultivated primarily in India, China, Indonesia, Africa, Mexico, Guatemala, and the United States. The seeds were brought to the United States by African slaves in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and they are still called benne, an African word for “sesame,” throughout the American South.

The seedpods, or capsules, that contain sesame seeds tend to shatter easily once ripe, so the seeds must be harvested before they are fully mature. Traditionally, harvesting was done by hand, the stalks cut and then dried and the seeds removed, and it is still done this way in many countries. But more recently, varieties that do not burst when ripe have been developed, allowing for mechanical harvesting. The seeds are small, flat, and oval. White sesame seeds, which are actually a pale cream color, are the most common form. Brown sesame seeds, also called “natural,” are unhulled white seeds. The white seeds are sometimes sold toasted, and in that case look like the brown seeds. The white seeds have a faint nutty aroma, while unhulled brown seeds have almost no fragrance; both, however, have a pleasing nutty, slightly sweet flavor. Black sesame seeds, grown in Asia, have little aroma but a richer flavor.

Sesame seeds are used in baked goods in many cuisines and are often sprinkled over flatbreads and other breads, bagels (of course), and breadsticks before baking. They pair well with certain vegetables, particularly asparagus, bok choy, and broccoli, as well as eggplant. In India, the seeds are made into a nutty chutney served with various dishes. Toasting brings out the flavor of the seeds, and they are easily toasted in a dry skillet, just until aromatic; overtoasting can make the seeds, especially the black ones, bitter. In Japan, a mixture of toasted sesame seeds and sea salt, called gomasio, is a popular seasoning. Sesame seeds may also be sprinkled over salads or stirred into rice or noodle dishes, and the black seeds make a striking garnish. The ground sesame paste known as tahini, made from hulled white seeds, is ubiquitous in the Middle East, and a similar paste made from toasted seeds is used in Japanese and other Asian cuisines. The seeds are also used in sweet dishes and in confections, notably halvah, the Middle Eastern sweet.

Sesame oil is used in many cuisines, and it keeps well even in hot climates. The oil extracted from white seeds is used as a cooking oil in Western kitchens, while Asian oils, made from toasted seeds, are darker and have a stronger, more nutty flavor; they are more often used in dressings or as a finishing oil or garnish.

MEDICINAL USES: Sesame seeds are high in calcium and in iron, manganese, and zinc. They have a slight laxative effect and are thought to help in digestion. Folk medicine attributes various other benefits—such as stimulating circulation and helping cleanse the liver and kidneys—to the seeds.

SHICHIMI TOGARASHI

Also known as seven-flavor or seven-spice mix, shichimi togarashi is a Japanese seasoning mixture that can be very hot or relatively mild, depending on the proportion of chile included (togarashi means “red pepper flakes”). The seven ingredients are red pepper flakes, sansho pepper, black or white sesame seeds, black poppy seeds (or hemp or rape seeds), white poppy seeds, dried orange or tangerine peel, and ground nori (dried seaweed). The texture is fairly coarse, with some of the sesame seeds left whole and tiny bits of dried citrus peel throughout, and the aroma is primarily of chiles, with a faint citrus undertone. In Japan, shichimi togarashi is sprinkled over noodles and added to soups and a variety of other dishes. It is also used as a table condiment, to be sprinkled over tempura, udon or soba noodles, and other preparations as desired.

ST. LUCIE’S CHERRY

See Mahlab.

STAR ANISE

BOTANICAL NAME: Illicium verum

OTHER NAMES: Chinese anise, badian

FORMS: whole and ground

Star anise is the seedpod of an evergreen tree native to southern China and North Vietnam; it is a member of the magnolia family. Today, it is grown in India, Japan, and the Philippines, as well as in China and Vietnam. The trees first bear fruit after six years, and they may continue to fruit for as long as one hundred years.

Dried star anise has a striking appearance. It looks like an eight-pointed star, and each canoe-shaped “point” splits open to reveal a hard, shiny tan or brown seed. Several of its various Chinese names translate as “eight points.” Like allspice, cloves, and pepper, the spice is harvested before it has ripened and then dried in the sun.

Dried star anise is mahogany to dark reddish-brown in color. It has a pungent warm, sweet, spicy aroma, like that of licorice, and its flavor is similar to that of aniseeds but stronger. Although they are unrelated botanically, aniseeds and star anise both contain the essential oil anethole. Star aniseeds have less flavor than the dried casings that surround them. Ground star anise is made from the whole dried spice. The reddish-brown powder has a warm, pungent aroma and strong licorice flavor, with a hint of cloves and a slight bitterness. Because the dried spice is very hard, if you need ground star anise, it is better to buy it preground rather than attempt to grind it in a mortar and pestle or even a spice grinder. Whole star anise keeps almost indefinitely.

Star anise is an important ingredient in Chinese and Vietnamese cooking, and it also seasons Indian and Indonesian dishes. It is pungent, so it should be used sparingly, whether whole or ground. It pairs well with chicken and other poultry; Chinese cooks often add one or two star anise to the cavity of a chicken before roasting it, and it also flavors red-cooked duck. It is an ingredient in soups and stocks, including Chinese master stocks. Star anise adds fragrance to pho, the classic Vietnamese beef soup, and it also flavors long-cooked stews and braises. In most cuisines, the spice is usually added whole to stews and similar dishes, then removed before serving. In India (badian is its Indian name), it is used for biryanis and other rice dishes and in curries. Ground star anise is an ingredient in some curry powders, and it is the dominant flavor of Chinese five-spice powder. Unlike most spices, star anise is not well known in the West, although it is used to flavor anisette and some liqueurs.

MEDICINAL USES: The flavor of star anise lingers on the tongue, and it can be chewed as a breath freshener or as an aid to digestion. It is considered a stimulant and diuretic, and it is sometimes used as an antiseptic. In some Eastern cultures, the spice is thought to relieve the ache of rheumatism and to cure colic. Star anise tea is prescribed for sore throats and various other ills.

SUMAC

BOTANICAL NAME: Rhus coriaria

FORMS: whole berries and powder

Sumac comes from a shrub native to the Mediterranean, and its history dates to ancient times. The Romans used sumac berries as a souring agent and flavoring before citrus fruits reached the region. Sumac still grows wild around the Mediterranean, including in Sicily and southern Italy; major sources today include Turkey and the Middle East.

Sumac berries, which are about the size of a peppercorn, grow in clusters and turn from green to crimson as they ripen. (There are many varieties of the shrub, and some of them—including many of those used as ornamental bushes in North America—are poisonous, so don’t be tempted to harvest sumac berries from your backyard. However, Native Americans traditionally used sumac berries to make a refreshing drink, and they also used both leaves and berries in tobacco mixtures.) The berries are picked by hand when mature but slightly underripe and then dried, still on the stem, in the sun for several days. The fully dried berries range from brick-red to almost purple in color. Although they are sometimes sold whole, they are more often ground to a coarse, slightly moist powder; the best-quality powders are a deep reddish-purple. Sumac has a clean, fruity fragrance and tart, fruity, astringent flavor, with a citrus tang but without the sharpness of lemon juice.

Sumac is widely used in cooking in Turkey and the Middle East, especially in Lebanon, Iran, and Iraq. The dried whole berries must be soaked or ground before use; occasionally, the berries are soaked to soften them and then are strained out, pressed to release all their juices, and the liquid used as part of the cooking medium for a stew or other dish. A simple salad of sliced onions seasoned with ground sumac is popular throughout the Middle East. Sumac flavors kebabs and grilled meats, fish, and chicken, and it is added to marinades for foods that will be roasted or grilled. It can be stirred into yogurt to make a marinade, or the seasoned yogurt can be served on its own as a dip or a condiment. Sumac is also sprinkled over rice, hummus, or baba ghanoush, along with a drizzle of olive oil, as a garnish and flavoring. It is an essential ingredient in the Middle Eastern spice blend za’atar.

SZECHUAN PEPPER

See Pepper.