The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business (2012)

APPENDIX

A Reader’s Guide to Using These Ideas

The difficult thing about studying the science of habits is that most people, when they hear about this field of research, want to know the secret formula for quickly changing any habit. If scientists have discovered how these patterns work, then it stands to reason that they must have also found a recipe for rapid change, right?

If only it were that easy.

It’s not that formulas don’t exist. The problem is that there isn’t one formula for changing habits. There are thousands.

Individuals and habits are all different, and so the specifics of diagnosing and changing the patterns in our lives differ from person to person and behavior to behavior. Giving up cigarettes is different from curbing overeating, which is different from changing how you communicate with your spouse, which is different from how you prioritize tasks at work. What’s more, each person’s habits are driven by different cravings.

As a result, this book doesn’t contain one prescription. Rather, I hoped to deliver something else: a framework for understanding how habits work and a guide to experimenting with how they might change. Some habits yield easily to analysis and influence. Others are more complex and obstinate, and require prolonged study. And for others, change is a process that never fully concludes.

But that doesn’t mean it can’t occur. Each chapter in this book explains a different aspect of why habits exist and how they function. The framework described in this appendix is an attempt to distill, in a very basic way, the tactics that researchers have found for diagnosing and shaping habits within our own lives. This isn’t meant to be comprehensive. This is merely a practical guide, a place to start. And paired with deeper lessons from this book’s chapters, it’s a manual for where to go next.

Change might not be fast and it isn’t always easy. But with time and effort, almost any habit can be reshaped.

THE FRAMEWORK:

✵ Identify the routine

✵ Experiment with rewards

✵ Isolate the cue

✵ Have a plan

STEP ONE: IDENTIFY THE ROUTINE

The MIT researchers in chapter 1 discovered a simple neurological loop at the core of every habit, a loop that consists of three parts: a cue, a routine, and a reward.

To understand your own habits, you need to identify the components of your loops. Once you have diagnosed the habit loop of a particular behavior, you can look for ways to supplant old vices with new routines.

As an example, let’s say you have a bad habit, like I did when I started researching this book, of going to the cafeteria and buying a chocolate chip cookie every afternoon. Let’s say this habit has caused you to gain a few pounds. In fact, let’s say this habit has caused you to gain exactly eight pounds, and that your wife has made a few pointed comments. You’ve tried to force yourself to stop—you even went so far as to put a Post-it on your computer that reads no more cookies.

But every afternoon you manage to ignore that note, get up, wander toward the cafeteria, buy a cookie, and, while chatting with colleagues around the cash register, eat it. It feels good, and then it feels bad. Tomorrow, you promise yourself, you’ll muster the willpower to resist. Tomorrow will be different.

But tomorrow the habit takes hold again.

How do you start diagnosing and then changing this behavior? By figuring out the habit loop. And the first step is to identify the routine. In this cookie scenario—as with most habits—the routine is the most obvious aspect: It’s the behavior you want to change. Your routine is that you get up from your desk in the afternoon, walk to the cafeteria, buy a chocolate chip cookie, and eat it while chatting with friends. So that’s what you put into the loop:

Next, some less obvious questions: What’s the cue for this routine? Is it hunger? Boredom? Low blood sugar? That you need a break before plunging into another task?

And what’s the reward? The cookie itself? The change of scenery? The temporary distraction? Socializing with colleagues? Or the burst of energy that comes from that blast of sugar?

To figure this out, you’ll need to do a little experimentation.

STEP TWO: EXPERIMENT WITH REWARDS

Rewards are powerful because they satisfy cravings. But we’re often not conscious of the cravings that drive our behaviors. When the Febreze marketing team discovered that consumers desired a fresh scent at the end of a cleaning ritual, for example, they had found a craving that no one even knew existed. It was hiding in plain sight. Most cravings are like this: obvious in retrospect, but incredibly hard to see when we are under their sway.

To figure out which cravings are driving particular habits, it’s useful to experiment with different rewards. This might take a few days, or a week, or longer. During that period, you shouldn’t feel any pressure to make a real change—think of yourself as a scientist in the data collection stage.

On the first day of your experiment, when you feel the urge to go to the cafeteria and buy a cookie, adjust your routine so it delivers a different reward. For instance, instead of walking to the cafeteria, go outside, walk around the block, and then go back to your desk without eating anything. The next day, go to the cafeteria and buy a donut, or a candy bar, and eat it at your desk. The next day, go to the cafeteria, buy an apple, and eat it while chatting with your friends. Then, try a cup of coffee. Then, instead of going to the cafeteria, walk over to your friend’s office and gossip for a few minutes and go back to your desk.

You get the idea. What you choose to do instead of buying a cookie isn’t important. The point is to test different hypotheses to determine which craving is driving your routine. Are you craving the cookie itself, or a break from work? If it’s the cookie, is it because you’re hungry? (In which case the apple should work just as well.) Or is it because you want the burst of energy the cookie provides? (And so the coffee should suffice.) Or are you wandering up to the cafeteria as an excuse to socialize, and the cookie is just a convenient excuse? (If so, walking to someone’s desk and gossiping for a few minutes should satisfy the urge.)

As you test four or five different rewards, you can use an old trick to look for patterns: After each activity, jot down on a piece of paper the first three things that come to mind when you get back to your desk. They can be emotions, random thoughts, reflections on how you’re feeling, or just the first three words that pop into your head.

Then, set an alarm on your watch or computer for fifteen minutes. When it goes off, ask yourself: Do you still feel the urge for that cookie?

The reason why it’s important to write down three things—even if they are meaningless words—is twofold. First, it forces a momentary awareness of what you are thinking or feeling. Just as Mandy, the nail biter in chapter 3, carried around a note card filled with hash marks to force her into awareness of her habitual urges, so writing three words forces a moment of attention. What’s more, studies show that writing down a few words helps in later recalling what you were thinking at that moment. At the end of the experiment, when you review your notes, it will be much easier to remember what you were thinking and feeling at that precise instant, because your scribbled words will trigger a wave of recollection.

And why the fifteen-minute alarm? Because the point of these tests is to determine the reward you’re craving. If, fifteen minutes after eating a donut, you still feel an urge to get up and go to the cafeteria, then your habit isn’t motivated by a sugar craving. If, after gossiping at a colleague’s desk, you still want a cookie, then the need for human contact isn’t what’s driving your behavior.

On the other hand, if fifteen minutes after chatting with a friend, you find it easy to get back to work, then you’ve identified the reward—temporary distraction and socialization—that your habit sought to satisfy.

By experimenting with different rewards, you can isolate what you are actually craving, which is essential in redesigning the habit.

Once you’ve figured out the routine and the reward, what remains is identifying the cue.

STEP THREE: ISOLATE THE CUE

About a decade ago, a psychologist at the University of Western Ontario tried to answer a question that had bewildered social scientists for years: Why do some eyewitnesses of crimes misremember what they see, while other recall events accurately?

The recollections of eyewitnesses, of course, are incredibly important. And yet studies indicate that eyewitnesses often misremember what they observe. They insist that the thief was a man, for instance, when she was wearing a skirt; or that the crime occurred at dusk, even though police reports say it happened at 2:00 in the afternoon. Other eyewitnesses, on the other hand, can remember the crimes they’ve seen with near-perfect recall.

Dozens of studies have examined this phenomena, trying to determine why some people are better eyewitnesses than others. Researchers theorized that some people simply have better memories, or that a crime that occurs in a familiar place is easier to recall. But those theories didn’t test out—people with strong and weak memories, or more and less familiarity with the scene of a crime, were equally liable to misremember what took place.

The psychologist at the University of Western Ontario took a different approach. She wondered if researchers were making a mistake by focusing on what questioners and witnesses had said, rather than how they were saying it. She suspected there were subtle cues that were influencing the questioning process. But when she watched videotape after videotape of witness interviews, looking for these cues, she couldn’t see anything. There was so much activity in each interview—all the facial expressions, the different ways the questions were posed, the fluctuating emotions—that she couldn’t detect any patterns.

So she came up with an idea: She made a list of a few elements she would focus on—the questioners’ tone, the facial expressions of the witness, and how close the witness and the questioner were sitting to each other. Then she removed any information that would distract her from those elements. She turned down the volume on the television so instead of hearing words, all she could detect was the tone of the questioner’s voice. She taped a sheet of paper over the questioner’s face, so all she could see was the witnesses’ expressions. She held a tape measure to the screen to measure their distance from each other.

And once she started studying these specific elements, patterns leapt out. She saw that witnesses who misremembered facts usually were questioned by cops who used a gentle, friendly tone. When witnesses smiled more, or sat closer to the person asking the questions, they were more likely to misremember.

In other words, when environmental cues said «we are friends»—a gentle tone, a smiling face—the witnesses were more likely to misremember what had occurred. Perhaps it was because, subconsciously, those friendship cues triggered a habit to please the questioner.

But the importance of this experiment is that those same tapes had been watched by dozens of other researchers. Lots of smart people had seen the same patterns, but no one had recognized them before. Because there was too much information in each tape to see a subtle cue.

Once the psychologist decided to focus on only three categories of behavior, however, and eliminate the extraneous information, the patterns leapt out.

Our lives are the same way. The reason why it is so hard to identify the cues that trigger our habits is because there is too much information bombarding us as our behaviors unfold. Ask yourself, do you eat breakfast at a certain time each day because you are hungry? Or because the clock says 7:30? Or because your kids have started eating? Or because you’re dressed, and that’s when the breakfast habit kicks in?

When you automatically turn your car left while driving to work, what triggers that behavior? A street sign? A particular tree? The knowledge that this is, in fact, the correct route? All of them together? When you’re driving your kid to school and you find that you’ve absentmindedly started taking the route to work—rather than to the school—what caused the mistake? What was the cue that caused the «drive to work» habit to kick in, rather than the «drive to school» pattern?

To identify a cue amid the noise, we can use the same system as the psychologist: Identify categories of behaviors ahead of time to scrutinize in order to see patterns. Luckily, science offers some help in this regard. Experiments have shown that almost all habitual cues fit into one of five categories:

Location

Time

Emotional state

Other people

Immediately preceding action

So if you’re trying to figure out the cue for the «going to the cafeteria and buying a chocolate chip cookie» habit, you write down five things the moment the urge hits (these are my actual notes from when I was trying to diagnose my habit):

Where are you? (sitting at my desk)

What time is it? (3:36

P.M

.)

What’s your emotional state? (bored)

Who else is around? (no one)

What action preceded the urge? (answered an email)

The next day:

Where are you? (walking back from the copier)

What time is it? (3:18

P.M

.)

What’s your emotional state? (happy)

Who else is around? (Jim from Sports)

What action preceded the urge? (made a photocopy)

The third day:

Where are you? (conference room)

What time is it? (3:41

P.M

.)

What’s your emotional state? (tired, excited about the project I’m working on)

Who else is around? (editors who are coming to this meeting)

What action preceded the urge? (I sat down because the meeting is about to start)

Three days in, it was pretty clear which cue was triggering my cookie habit—I felt an urge to get a snack at a certain time of day. I had already figured out, in step two, that it wasn’t hunger driving my behavior. The reward I was seeking was a temporary distraction—the kind that comes from gossiping with a friend. And the habit, I now knew, was triggered between 3:00 and 4:00.

STEP FOUR: HAVE A PLAN

Once you’ve figured out your habit loop—you’ve identified the reward driving your behavior, the cue triggering it, and the routine itself—you can begin to shift the behavior. You can change to a better routine by planning for the cue and choosing a behavior that delivers the reward you are craving. What you need is a plan.

In the prologue, we learned that a habit is a choice that we deliberately make at some point, and then stop thinking about, but continue doing, often every day.

Put another way, a habit is a formula our brain automatically follows: When I see CUE, I will do ROUTINE in order to get a REWARD.

To re-engineer that formula, we need to begin making choices again. And the easiest way to do this, according to study after study, is to have a plan. Within psychology, these plans are known as «implementation intentions.»

Take, for instance, my cookie-in-the-afternoon habit. By using this framework, I learned that my cue was roughly 3:30 in the afternoon. I knew that my routine was to go to the cafeteria, buy a cookie, and chat with friends. And, through experimentation, I had learned that it wasn’t really the cookie I craved—rather, it was a moment of distraction and the opportunity to socialize.

So I wrote a plan:

At 3:30, every day, I will walk to a friend’s desk and talk for 10 minutes.

To make sure I remembered to do this, I set the alarm on my watch for 3:30.

It didn’t work immediately. There were some days I was too busy and ignored the alarm, and then fell off the wagon. Other times it seemed like too much work to find a friend willing to chat—it was easier to get a cookie, and so I gave in to the urge. But on those days that I abided by my plan—when my alarm went off, I forced myself to walk to a friend’s desk and chat for ten minutes—I found that I ended the workday feeling better. I hadn’t gone to the cafeteria, I hadn’t eat a cookie, and I felt fine. Eventually, it got be automatic: when the alarm rang, I found a friend and ended the day feeling a small, but real, sense of accomplishment. After a few weeks, I hardly thought about the routine anymore. And when I couldn’t find anyone to chat with, I went to the cafeteria and bought tea and drank it with friends.

That all happened about six months ago. I don’t have my watch anymore—I lost it at some point. But at about 3:30 every day, I absentmindedly stand up, look around the newsroom for someone to talk to, spend ten minutes gossiping about the news, and then go back to my desk. It occurs almost without me thinking about it. It has become a habit.

Obviously, changing some habits can be more difficult. But this framework is a place to start. Sometimes change takes a long time. Sometimes it requires repeated experiments and failures. But once you understand how a habit operates—once you diagnose the cue, the routine and the reward—you gain power over it.

To Oliver, John Harry,

John and Doris,

and, everlastingly, to Liz

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I have been undeservedly lucky throughout my life to work with people who are more talented than I am, and to get to steal their wisdom and gracefulness and pass it off as my own.

Which is why you are reading this book, and why I have so many people to thank.

Andy Ward acquired The Power of Habit before he even started as an editor at Random House. At the time, I did not know that he was a kind, generous, and amazingly—astoundingly—talented editor. I’d heard from some friends that he had elevated their prose and held their hands so gracefully they almost forgot the touch. But I figured they were exaggerating, since many of them were drinking at the time. Dear reader: it’s all true. Andy’s humility, patience and—most of all—the work he puts into being a good friend make everyone around him want to be a better person. This book is as much his as mine, and I am thankful that I had a chance to know, work with, and learn from him. Equally, I owe an enormous debt to some obscure deity for landing me at Random House under the wise guidance of Susan Kamil, the leadership of Gina Centrello, and the advice and efforts of Avideh Bashirrad, Tom Perry, Sanyu Dillon, Sally Marvin, Barbara Fillon, Maria Braeckel, Erika Greber, and the ever-patient Kaela Myers.

A similar twist of fortune allowed me to work with Scott Moyers, Andrew Wylie, and James Pullen at the Wylie Agency. Scott’s counsel and friendship—as many writers know—is as invaluable as it is generous. Scott has moved back into the editorial world, and readers everywhere should consider themselves lucky. Andrew Wylie is always steadfast and astute in making the world safer (and more comfortable) for his writers, and I am enormously grateful. And James Pullen has helped me understand how to write in languages I didn’t know existed.

Additionally, I owe an enormous amount to the New York Times. A huge thanks goes to Larry Ingrassia, The Times’ business editor, whose friendship, advice and understanding allowed me to write this book, and to commit journalism among so many other talented reporters in an atmosphere where our work—and The Times’ mission—is constantly elevated by his example. Vicki Ingrassia, too, has been a wonderful support. As any writer who has met Adam Bryant knows, he is an amazing advocate and friend, with gifted hands. And it is a privilege to work for Bill Keller, Jill Abramson, Dean Baquet and Glenn Kramon, and to follow their examples of how journalists should carry themselves through the world.

A few other thanks: I’m indebted to my Times colleagues Dean Murphy, Winnie O’Kelly, Jenny Anderson, Rick Berke, Andrew Ross Sorkin, David Leonhardt, Walt Bogdanich, David Gillen, Eduardo Porter, Jodi Kantor, Vera Titunik, Amy O’leary, Peter Lattman, David Segal, Christine Haughney, Jenny Schussler, Joe Nocera and Jim Schacter (both of whom read chapters for me), Jeff Cane, Michael Barbaro and others who have been so generous with their friendship and their ideas.

Similarly, I’m thankful to Alex Blumberg, Adam Davidson, Paula Szuchman, Nivi Nord, Alex Berenson, Nazanin Rafsanjani, Brendan Koerner, Nicholas Thompson, Kate Kelly, Sarah Ellison, Kevin Bleyer, Amanda Schaffer, Dennis Potami, James Wynn, Noah Kotch, Greg Nelson, Caitlin Pike, Jonathan Klein, Amanda Klein, Donnan Steele, Stacey Steele, Wesley Morris, Adir Waldman, Rich Frankel, Jennifer Couzin, Aaron Bendikson, Richard Rampell, Mike Bor, David Lewicki, Beth Waltemath, Ellen Martin, Russ Uman, Erin Brown, Jeff Norton, Raj De Datta, Ruben Sigala, Dan Costello, Peter Blake, Peter Goodman, Alix Spiegel, Susan Dominus, Jenny Rosenstrach, Jason Woodard, Taylor Noguera, and Matthew Bird, who all provided support and guidance. The book’s cover, and wonderful interior graphics, come from the mind of the incredibly talented Anton Ioukhnovets.

I also owe a debt to the many people who were generous with their time in reporting this book. Many are mentioned in the notes, but I wanted to give additional thanks to Tom Andrews at SYPartners, Tony Dungy and DJ Snell, Paul O’Neill, Warren Bennis, Rick Warren, Anne Krumm, Paco Underhill, Larry Squire, Wolfram Schultz, Ann Graybiel, Todd Heatherton, J. Scott Tonigan, Taylor Branch, Bob Bowman, Travis Leach, Howard Schultz, Mark Muraven, Angela Duckworth, Jane Bruno, Reza Habib, Patrick Mulkey and Terry Noffsinger. I was aided enormously by researchers and fact checkers, including Dax Proctor, Josh Friedman, Cole Louison, Alexander Provan and Neela Saldanha.

I am forever thankful to Bob Sipchen, who gave me my first real job in journalism, and am sorry that I won’t be able to share this book with two friends lost too early, Brian Ching and L. K. Case.

Finally, my deepest thanks are to my family. Katy Duhigg, Jacquie Jenkusky, David Duhigg, Toni Martorelli, Daniel Duhigg, Alexandra Alter, and Jake Goldstein have been wonderful friends. My sons, Oliver and John Harry, have been sources of inspiration and sleeplessness. My parents, John and Doris, encouraged me from a young age to write, even as I was setting things on fire and giving them reason to figure that future correspondence might be on prison stationary.

And, of course, my wife, Liz, whose constant love, support, guidance, intelligence and friendship made this book possible.

—September, 2011

A NOTE ON SOURCES

The reporting in this book is based on hundreds of interviews, and thousands more papers and studies. Many of those sources are detailed in the text itself or the notes, along with guides to additional resources for interested readers.

In most situations, individuals who provided major sources of information or who published research that was integral to reporting were provided with an opportunity—after reporting was complete—to review facts and offer additional comments, address discrepancies, or register issues with how information is portrayed. Many of those comments are reproduced in the notes. (No source was given access to the book’s complete text—all comments are based on summaries provided to sources.)

In a very small number of cases, confidentiality was extended to sources who, for a variety of reasons, could not speak on a for-attribution basis. In a very tiny number of instances, some identifying characteristics have been withheld or slightly modified to conform with patient privacy laws or for other reasons.

NOTES

PROLOGUE

prl.1 So they measured subjects’ vital signs Reporting for Lisa Allen’s story is based on interviews with Allen. This research study is ongoing and unpublished, and thus researchers were not available for interviews. Basic outcomes, however, were confirmed by studies and interviews with scientists working on similar projects, including A. DelParigi et al., «Successful Dieters Have Increased Neural Activity in Cortical Areas Involved in the Control of Behavior,» International Journal of Obesity 31 (2007): 440—48; Duc Son NT Le et al., «Less Activation in the Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in the Reanalysis of the Response to a Meal in Obese than in Lean Women and Its Association with Successful Weight Loss,» American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 86, no. 3 (2007): 573—79; A. DelParigi et al., «Persistence of Abnormal Neural Responses to a Meal in Postobese Individuals,» International Journal of Obesity 28 (2004): 370—77; E. Stice et al., «Relation of Reward from Food Intake and Anticipated Food Intake to Obesity: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study,» Journal of Abnormal Psychology 117, no. 4 (November 2008): 924—35; A. C. Janes et al., «Brain fMRI Reactivity to Smoking-Related Images Before and During Extended Smoking Abstinence,» Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 17 (December 2009): 365—73; D. McBride et al., «Effects of Expectancy and Abstinence on the Neural Response to Smoking Cues in Cigarette Smokers: An fMRI Study,» Neuropsychopharmacology 31 (December 2006): 2728—38; R. Sinha and C. S. Li, «Imaging Stress-and Cue-Induced Drug and Alcohol Craving: Association with Relapse and Clinical Implications,» Drug and Alcohol Review 26, no. 1 (January 2007): 25—31; E. Tricomi, B. W. Balleine, and J. P. O’doherty, «A Specific Role for Posterior Dorsolateral Striatum in Human Habit Learning,» European Journal of Neuroscience 29, no. 11 (June 2009): 2225—32; D. Knoch, P. Bugger, and M. Regard, «Suppressing Versus Releasing a Habit: Frequency-Dependent Effects of Prefrontal Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation,» Cerebral Cortex 15, no. 7 (July 2005): 885—87.

prl.2 «All our life, so far as it has» William James, Talks to Teachers on Psychology and to Students on Some of Life’s Ideals, originally published in 1899.

prl.3 One paper published Bas Verplanken and Wendy Wood, «Interventions to Break and Create Consumer Habits,» Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 25, no. 1 (2006): 90—103; David T. Neal, Wendy Wood, and Jeffrey M. Quinn, «Habits—A Repeat Performance,» Current Directions in Psychological Science 15, no. 4 (2006): 198—202.

prl.4 The U.S. military, it occurred to me For my understanding of the fascinating topic of the military’s use of habit training, I am indebted to Dr. Peter Schifferle at the School of Advanced Military Studies, Dr. James Lussier, and the many commanders and soldiers who were generous with their time both in Iraq and at SAMS. For more on this topic, see Scott B. Shadrick and James W. Lussier, «Assessment of the Think Like a Commander Training Program,» U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences Research Report 1824, July 2004; Scott B. Shadrick et al., «Positive Transfer of Adaptive Battlefield Thinking Skills,» U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences Research Report 1873, July 2007; Thomas J. Carnahan et al., «Novice Versus Expert Command Groups: Preliminary Findings and Training Implications for Future Combat Systems,» U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences Research Report 1821, March 2004; Carl W. Lickteig et al., «Human Performance Essential to Battle Command: Report on Four Future Combat Systems Command and Control Experiments,» U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences Research Report 1812, November 2003; and Army Field Manual 5—2 20, February 2009.

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 six feet tall Lisa Stefanacci et al., «Profound Amnesia After Damage to the Medial Temporal Lobe: A Neuroanatomical and Neuropsychological Profile of Patient E.P.,» Journal of Neuroscience 20, no. 18 (2000): 7024—36.

1.2 «Who’s Michael?» I am indebted to the Pauly and Rayes families, as well as the Squire laboratory and coverage such as Joshua Foer, «Remember This,» National Geographic, November 2007, 32—57; «Don’t Forget,» Scientific American Frontiers, television program, produced by Chedd-Angier Production Company, PBS, episode first aired May 11, 2004, hosted by Alan Alda; «Solved: Two Controversial Brain Teasers,» Bioworld Today, August 1999; David E. Graham, «UCSD Scientist Unlocks Working of Human Memory,» The San Diego Union-Tribune, August 12, 1999.

1.3 The sample from Eugene’s spine Richard J. Whitley and David W. Kimberlan, «Viral Encephalitis,» Pediatrics in Review 20, no. 6 (1999): 192—98.

1.4 was seven years old Some published papers say that H.M. was injured at age nine; others say seven.

1.5 he was hit by a bicycle Previous research indicates that H.M. was hit by a bicycle. New documents, as yet unpublished, indicate he may have fallen off a bike.

1.6 landed hard on his head Luke Dittrich, «The Brain That Changed Everything,» Esquire, October 2010.

1.7 He was smart Eric Hargreaves, «H.M.,» Page O’Neuroplasticity, http://www.nyu.edu.

1.8 When the doctor proposed cutting Benedict Carey, «H. M., Whose Loss of Memory Made Him Unforgettable, Dies,» The New York Times, December 5, 2008.

1.9 with a small straw This was a common practice at the time.

1.10 He introduced himself to his doctors Dittrich, «The Brain That Changed Everything»; Larry R. Squire, «Memory and Brain Systems: 1969—2009,» Journal of Neuroscience 29, no. 41 (2009): 12711—26; Larry R. Squire, «The Legacy of Patient H.M. for Neuroscience,» Neuron 61, no. 1 (2009): 6—9.

1.11 transformed our understanding of habits’ power Jonathan M. Reed et al., «Learning About Categories That Are Defined by Object-Like Stimuli Despite Impaired Declarative Memory,» Behavioral Neuroscience 113 (1999): 411—19; B. J. Knowlton, J. A. Mangels, and L. R. Squire, «A Neostriatal Habit Learning System in Humans,» Science 273 (1996): 1399—1402; P. J. Bayley, J. C. Frascino, and L. R. Squire, «Robust Habit Learning in the Absence of Awareness and Independent of the Medial Temporal Lobe,» Nature 436 (2005): 550—53.

1.12 a golf ball—sized B. Bendriem et al., «Quantitation of the Human Basal Ganglia with Positron Emission Tomography: A Phantom Study of the Effect of Contrast and Axial Positioning,» IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 10, no. 2 (1991): 216—22.

1.13 an oval of cells G. E. Alexander and M. D. Crutcher, «Functional Architecture of Basal Ganglia Circuits: Neural Substrates of Parallel Processing,» Trends in Neurosciences 13 (1990): 266—71; André Parent and Lili-Naz Hazrati, «Functional Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia,» Brain Research Reviews 20 (1995): 91—127; Roger L. Albin, Anne B. Young, and John B. Penney, «The Functional Anatomy of Basal Ganglia Disorders,» Trends in Neurosciences 12 (1989): 366—75.

1.14 diseases such as Parkinson’s Alain Dagher and T. W. Robbins, «Personality, Addiction, Dopamine: Insights from Parkinson’s Disease,» Neuron 61 (2009): 502—10.

1.15 to open food containers I am indebted to the following sources for expanding my understanding of the work at the MIT labs, the basal ganglia, and its role in habits and memory: F. Gregory Ashby and John M. Ennis, «The Role of the Basal Ganglia in Category Learning,» Psychology of Learning and Motivation 46 (2006): 1—36; F. G. Ashby, B. O. Turner, and J. C. Horvitz, «Cortical and Basal Ganglia Contributions to Habit Learning and Automaticity,» Trends in Cognitive Sciences 14 (2010): 208—15; C. Da Cunha and M. G. Packard, «Preface: Special Issue on the Role of the Basal Ganglia in Learning and Memory,» Behavioural Brain Research 199 (2009): 1—2; C. Da Cunha et al., «Learning Processing in the Basal Ganglia: A Mosaic of Broken Mirrors,» Behavioural Brain Research 199 (2009): 157—70; M. Desmurget and R. S. Turner, «Motor Sequences and the Basal Ganglia: Kinematics, Not Habits,» Journal of Neuroscience 30 (2010): 7685—90; J. J. Ebbers and N. M. Wijnberg, «Organizational Memory: From Expectations Memory to Procedural Memory,» British Journal of Management 20 (2009): 478—90; J. A. Grahn, J. A. Parkinson, and A. M. Owen, «The Role of the Basal Ganglia in Learning and Memory: Neuropsychological Studies,» Behavioural Brain Research 199 (2009): 53—60; Ann M. Graybiel, «The Basal Ganglia: Learning New Tricks and Loving It,» Current Opinion in Neurobiology 15 (2005): 638—44; Ann M. Graybiel, «The Basal Ganglia and Chunking of Action Repertoires,» Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 70, nos. 1—2 (1998): 119—36; F. Gregory Ashby and V. Valentin, «Multiple Systems of Perceptual Category Learning: Theory and Cognitive Tests,» in Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science, ed. Henri Cohen and Claire Lefebvre (Oxford: Elsevier Science, 2005); S. N Haber and M. Johnson Gdowski, «The Basal Ganglia,» in The Human Nervous System, 2nd ed., ed. George Paxinos and Jürgen K. Mai (San Diego: Academic Press, 2004), 676—738; T. D. Barnes et al., «Activity of Striatal Neurons Reflects Dynamic Encoding and Recoding of Procedural Memories,» Nature 437 (2005): 1158—61; M. Laubach, «Who’s on First? What’s on Second? The Time Course of Learning in Corticostriatal Systems,» Trends in Neurosciences 28 (2005): 509—11; E. K. Miller and T. J. Buschman, «Bootstrapping Your Brain: How Interactions Between the Frontal Cortex and Basal Ganglia May Produce Organized Actions and Lofty Thoughts,» in Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 2nd ed., ed. Raymond P. Kesner and Joe L. Martinez (Burlington, Vt.: Academic Press, 2007), 339—54; M. G. Packard, «Role of Basal Ganglia in Habit Learning and Memory: Rats, Monkeys, and Humans,» in Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience, ed. Heinz Steiner and Kuei Y. Tseng, 561—69; D. P. Salmon and N. Butters, «Neurobiology of Skill and Habit Learning,» Current Opinion in Neurobiology 5 (1995): 184—90; D. Shohamy et al., «Role of the Basal Ganglia in Category Learning: How Do Patients with Parkinson’s Disease Learn?» Behavioral Neuroscience 118 (2004): 676—86; M. T. Ullman, «Is Broca’s Area Part of a Basal Ganglia Thalamocortical Circuit?» Cortex 42 (2006): 480—85; N. M. White, «Mnemonic Functions of the Basal Ganglia,» Current Opinion in Neurobiology 7 (1997): 164—69.

1.16 The maze was structured Ann M. Graybiel, «Overview at Habits, Rituals, and the Evaluative Brain,» Annual Review of Neuroscience 31 (2008): 359—87; T. D. Barnes et al., «Activity of Striatal Neurons Reflects Dynamic Encoding and Recoding of Procedural Memories,» Nature 437 (2005): 1158—61; Ann M. Graybiel, «Network-Level Neuroplasticity in Cortico-Basal Ganglia Pathways,» Parkinsonism and Related Disorders 10 (2004): 293—96; N. Fujii and Ann M. Graybiel, «Time-Varying Covariance of Neural Activities Recorded in Striatum and Frontal Cortex as Monkeys Perform Sequential-Saccade Tasks,» Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102 (2005): 9032—37.

1.17 To see this capacity in action The graphs in this chapter have been simplified to exhibit salient aspects. However, a full description of these studies can be found among Dr. Graybiel’s papers and lectures.

1.18 root of how habits form Ann M. Graybiel, «The Basal Ganglia and Chunking of Action Repertoires,» Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 70 (1998): 119—36.

1.19 a habit is born For more, see A. David Smith and J. Paul Bolam, «The Neural Network of the Basal Ganglia as Revealed by the Study of Synaptic Connections of Identified Neurones,» Trends in Neurosciences 13 (1990): 259—65; John G. McHaffle et al., «Subcortical Loops Through the Basal Ganglia,» Trends in Neurosciences 28 (2005): 401—7; Ann M. Graybiel, «Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators in the Basal Ganglia,» Trends in Neurosciences 13 (1990): 244—54; J. Yelnik, «Functional Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia,» Movement Disorders 17 (2002): 15—21.

1.20 The problem is that your brain For more, see Catherine A. Thorn et al., «Differential Dynamics of Activity Changes in Dorsolateral and Dorsomedial Striatal Loops During Learning,» Neuron 66 (2010): 781—95; Ann M. Graybiel, «The Basal Ganglia: Learning New Tricks and Loving It,» Current Opinion in Neurobiology 15 (2005): 638—44.

1.21 In each pairing, one piece For more, see Peter J. Bayley, Jennifer C. Frascino, and Larry R. Squire, «Robust Habit Learning in the Absence of Awareness and Independent of the Medial Temporal Lobe,» Nature 436 (2005): 550—53; J. M. Reed et al., «Learning About Categories That Are Defined by Object-Like Stimuli Despite Impaired Declarative Memory,» Behavioral Neuroscience 133 (1999): 411—19; B. J. Knowlton, J. A. Mangels, and L. R. Squire, «A Neostriatal Habit Learning System in Humans,» Science 273 (1996): 1399—1402.

1.22 Squire’s experiments with Eugene It is worth noting that Squire’s work with Pauly is not limited to habits and has also provided insights into subjects such as spatial memory and the effects of priming on the brain. For a more complete discussion of discoveries made possible by Pauly, see Squire’s home page at http://psychiatry.ucsd.edu/faculty/lsquire.html.

1.23 The habit was so ingrained For discussion, see Monica R. F. Hilario et al., «Endocannabinoid Signaling Is Critical for Habit Formation,» Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience 1 (2007): 6; Monica R. F. Hilario and Rui M. Costa, «High on Habits,» Frontiers in Neuroscience 2 (2008): 208—17; A. Dickinson, «Appetitive-Aversive Interactions: Superconditioning of Fear by an Appetitive CS,» Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 29 (1977): 71—83; J. Lamarre and P. C. Holland, «Transfer of Inhibition After Serial Feature Negative Discrimination Training,» Learning and Motivation 18 (1987): 319—42; P. C. Holland, «Differential Effects of Reinforcement of an Inhibitory Feature After Serial and Simultaneous Feature Negative Discrimination Training,» Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 10 (1984): 461—75.

1.24 When researchers at the University of North Texas Jennifer L. Harris, Marlene B. Schwartz, and Kelly D. Brownell, «Evaluating Fast Food Nutrition and Marketing to Youth,» Yale Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity, 2010; H. Qin and V. R. Prybutok, «Determinants of Customer-Perceived Service Quality in Fast-Food Restaurants and Their Relationship to Customer Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions,» The Quality Management Journal 15 (2008): 35; H. Qin and V. R. Prybutok, «Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction, and Behavioral Intentions in Fast-Food Restaurants,» International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences 1 (2009): 78. For more on this topic, see K. C. Berridge, «Brain Reward Systems for Food Incentives and Hedonics in Normal Appetite and Eating Disorders,» in Appetite and Body Weight, ed. Tim C. Kirkham and Steven J. Cooper (Burlington, Vt.: Academic Press, 2007), 91—215; K. C. Berridge et al., «The Tempted Brain Eats: Pleasure and Desire Circuits in Obesity and Eating Disorders,» Brain Research 1350 (2010): 43—64; J. M. Dave et al., «Relationship of Attitudes Toward Fast Food and Frequency of Fast-Food Intake in Adults,» Obesity 17 (2009): 1164—70; S. A. French et al., «Fast Food Restaurant Use Among Adolescents: Associations with Nutrient Intake, Food Choices and Behavioral and Psychosocial Variables,» International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 25 (2001): 1823; N. Ressler, «Rewards and Punishments, Goal-Directed Behavior and Consciousness,» Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 28 (2004): 27—39; T. J. Richards, «Fast Food, Addiction, and Market Power,» Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 32 (2007): 425—47; M. M. Torregrossa, J. J. Quinn, and J. R. Taylor, «Impulsivity, Compulsivity, and Habit: The Role of Orbitofrontal Cortex Revisited,» Biological Psychiatry 63 (2008): 253—55; L. R. Vartanian, C. P. Herman, and B. Wansink, «Are We Aware of the External Factors That Influence Our Food Intake?» Health Psychology 27 (2008): 533—38; T. Yamamoto and T. Shimura, «Roles of Taste in Feeding and Reward,» in The Senses: A Comprehensive Reference, ed. Allan I. Basbaum et al. (New York: Academic Press, 2008), 437—58; F. G. Ashby, B. O. Turner, and J. C. Horvitz, «Cortical and Basal Ganglia Contributions to Habit Learning and Automaticity,» Trends in Cognitive Sciences 14 (2010): 208—15.

1.25 All the better for tightening K. C. Berridge and T. E. Robinson, «Parsing Reward,» Trends in Neurosciences 26 (2003): 507—13; Kelly D. Brownell and Katherine Battle Horgen, Food Fight: The Inside Story of the Food Industry, America’s Obesity Crisis, and What We Can Do About It (Chicago: Contemporary Books, 2004); Karl Weber, ed., Food, Inc.: How Industrial Food Is Making Us Sicker, Fatter, and Poorer—and What You Can Do About It (New York: Public Affairs, 2004); Ronald D. Michman and Edward M. Mazze, The Food Industry Wars: Marketing Triumphs and Blunders (Westport, Conn.: Quorum Books, 1998); M. Nestle, Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); D. R. Reed and A. Knaapila, «Genetics of Taste and Smell: Poisons and Pleasures,» in Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science, ed. Claude Bouchard (New York: Academic Press); N. Ressler, «Rewards and Punishments, Goal-Directed Behavior and Consciousness,» Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 28 (2004): 27—39; T. Yamamoto and T. Shimura, «Roles of Taste in Feeding and Reward,» in The Senses: A Comprehensive Reference, ed. Allan I. Basbaum et al. (New York: Academic Press, 2008), 437—58.

CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Hopkins would consent to For the history of Hopkins, Pepsodent, and dental care in the United States, I am indebted to Scott Swank, curator at the Dr. Samuel D. Harris National Museum of Dentistry; James L. Gutmann, DDS; and David A. Chemin, editor of the Journal of the History of Dentistry. In addition, I drew heavily on James Twitchell, Twenty Ads That Shook the World (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2000); the Dr. Samuel D. Harris National Museum of Dentistry; the Journal of the History of Dentistry; Mark E. Parry, «Crest Toothpaste: The Innovation Challenge,» Social Science Research Network, October 2008; Robert Aunger, «Tooth Brushing as Routine Behavior,» International Dental Journal 57 (2007): 364—76; Jean-Paul Claessen et al., «Designing Interventions to Improve Tooth Brushing,» International Dental Journal 58 (2008): 307—20; Peter Miskell, «Cavity Protection or Cosmetic Perfection: Innovation and Marketing of Toothpaste Brands in the United States and Western Europe, 1955—1985,» Business History Review 78 (2004): 29—60; James L. Gutmann, «The Evolution of America’s Scientific Advancements in Dentistry in the Past 150 Years,» The Journal of the American Dental Association 140 (2009): 8S—15S; Domenick T. Zero et al., «The Biology, Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment of Dental Caries: Scientific Advances in the United States,» The Journal of the American Dental Association 140 (2009): 25S—34S; Alyssa Picard, Making of the American Mouth: Dentists and Public Health in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2009); S. Fischman, «The History of Oral Hygiene Products: How Far Have We Come in 6,000 Years?» Periodontology 2000 15 (1997): 7—14; Vincent Vinikas, Soft Soap, Hard Sell: American Hygiene in the Age of Advertisement (Ames: University of Iowa Press, 1992).

2.2 As the nation had become wealthier H. A. Levenstein, Revolution at the Table: The Transformation of the American Diet (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Scott Swank, Paradox of Plenty: The Social History of Eating in Modern America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).

2.3 hardly anyone brushed their teeth Alyssa Picard, Making of the American Mouth: Dentists and Public Health in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2009).

2.4 everyone from Shirley Temple For more on celebrity advertising of toothpaste, see Steve Craig, «The More They Listen, the More They Buy: Radio and the Modernizing of Rural America, 1930—1939,» Agricultural History 80 (2006): 1—16.

2.5 By 1930, Pepsodent was sold Kerry Seagrave, America Brushes Up: The Use and Marketing of Toothpaste and Toothbrushes in the Twentieth Century (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2010); Alys Eve Weinbaum, et al., The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2008), 28—30.

2.6 A decade after the first Scripps-Howard, Market Records, from a Home Inventory Study of Buying Habits and Brand Preferences of Consumers in Sixteen Cities (New York: Scripps-Howard Newspapers, 1938).

2.7 The film is a naturally occurring membrane C. McGaughey and E. C. Stowell, «The Adsorption of Human Salivary Proteins and Porcine Submaxillary Mucin by Hydroxyapatite,» Archives of Oral Biology 12, no. 7 (1967): 815—28; Won-Kyu Park et al., «Influences of Animal Mucins on Lysozyme Activity in Solution and on Hydroxyapatite Surface,» Archives of Oral Biology 51, no. 10 (2006): 861—69.

2.8 particularly Pepsodent—were worthless William J. Gies, «Experimental Studies of the Validity of Advertised Claims for Products of Public Importance in Relation to Oral Hygiene or Dental Therapeutics,» Journal of Dental Research 2 (September 1920): 511—29.

2.9 Pepsodent removes the film! I am indebted to the Duke University digital collection of advertisements.

2.10 Pepsodent was one of the top-selling Kerry Seagrave, America Brushes Up: The Use and Marketing of Toothpaste and Toothbrushes in the Twentieth Century (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2010); Jeffrey L. Cruikshank and Arthur W. Schultz, The Man Who Sold America: The Amazing (but True!) Story of Albert D. Lasker and the Creation of the Advertising Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Business Press, 2010), 268—81.

2.11 best-selling toothpaste for more than Pepsodent was eventually outsold by Crest, which featured fluoride—the first ingredient in toothpaste that actually made it effective at fighting cavities.

2.12 A decade after Hopkins’s ad campaign Peter Miskell, «Cavity Protection or Cosmetic Perfection: Innovation and Marketing of Toothpaste Brands in the United States and Western Europe, 1955—1985,» Business History Review 78 (2004): 29—60.

2.13 Studies of people who have successfully H. Aarts, T. Paulussen, and H. Schaalma, «Physical Exercise Habit: On the Conceptualization and Formation of Habitual Health Behaviours,» Health Education Research 3 (1997): 363—74.

2.14 Research on dieting says Krystina A. Finlay, David Trafimow, and Aimee Villarreal, «Predicting Exercise and Health Behavioral Intentions: Attitudes, Subjective Norms, and Other Behavioral Determinants,» Journal of Applied Social Psychology 32 (2002): 342—56.

2.15 In the clothes-washing market alone Tara Parker-Pope, «P&G Targets Textiles Tide Can’t Clean,» The Wall Street Journal, April 29, 1998.

2.16 Its revenues topped $35 billion Peter Sander and John Slatter, The 100 Best Stocks You Can Buy (Avon, Mass.: Adams Business, 2009), 294.

2.17 They decided to call it Febreze The history of Febreze comes from interviews and articles, including «Procter & Gamble—Jager’s Gamble,» The Economist, October 28, 1999; Christine Bittar, «P&G’s Monumental Repackaging Project,» Brandweek, March 2000, 40—52; Jack Neff, «Does P&G Still Matter?» Advertising Age 71 (2000): 48—56; Roderick E. White and Ken Mark, «Procter & Gamble Canada: The Febreze Decision,» Ivey School of Business, London, Ontario, 2001. Procter & Gamble was asked to comment on the reporting contained in this chapter, and in a statement said: «P&G is committed to ensuring the confidentiality of information shared with us by our consumers. Therefore, we are unable to confirm or correct information that you have received from sources outside of P&G.»

2.18 The second ad featured a woman Christine Bittar, «Freshbreeze at P&G,» Brandweek, October 1999.

2.19 The cue: pet smells American Veterinary Medical Association, market research statistics for 2001.

2.20 So a new group of researchers joined A. J. Lafley and Ram Charan, The Game Changer: How You Can Drive Revenue and Profit Growth with Innovation (New York: Crown Business, 2008).

2.21 Rather than rats, however An overview of Wolfram Schultz’s research can be found in «Behavioral Theories and the Neurophysiology of Reward,» Annual Review of Psychology 57 (2006): 87—115; Wolfram Schultz, Peter Dayan, and P. Read Montague, «A Neural Substrate of Prediction and Reward,» Science 275 (1997): 1593—99; Wolfram Schultz, «Predictive Reward Signal of Dopamine Neurons,» Journal of Neurophysiology 80 (1998): 1—27; L. Tremblya and Wolfram Schultz, «Relative Reward Preference in Primate Orbitofrontal Cortex,» Nature 398 (1999): 704—8; Wolfram Schultz, «Getting Formal with Dopamine and Reward,» Neuron 36 (2002): 241—63; W. Schultz, P. Apicella, and T. Ljungberg, «Responses of Monkey Dopamine Neurons to Reward and Conditioned Stimuli During Successive Steps of Learning a Delayed Response Task,» Journal of Neuroscience 13 (1993): 900—913.

2.22 he was experiencing happiness It is important to note that Schultz does not claim that these spikes represent happiness. To a scientist, a spike in neural activity is just a spike, and assigning it subjective attributes is beyond the realm of provable results. In a fact-checking email, Schultz clarified: «We cannot talk about pleasure and happiness, as we don’t know the feelings of an animal.… We try to avoid unsubstantiated claims and simply look at the facts.» That said, as anyone who has ever seen a monkey, or a three-year-old human, receive some juice can attest, the result looks a lot like happiness.

2.23 The anticipation and sense of craving Schultz, in a fact-checking email, clarifies that his research focused not only on habits but on other behaviors as well: «Our data are not restricted to habits, which are one particular form of behavior. Rewards, and reward prediction errors, play a general role in all behaviors. Irrespective of habit or not, when we don’t get what we expect, we feel disappointed. That we call a negative prediction error (the negative difference between what we get and what we expected).»

2.24 Most food sellers locate their kiosks Brian Wansink, Mindless Eating: Why We Eat More Than We Think (New York: Bantam, 2006); Sheila Sasser and David Moore, «Aroma-Driven Craving and Consumer Consumption Impulses,» presentation, session 2.4, American Marketing Association Summer Educator Conference, San Diego, California, August 8—11, 2008; David Fields, «In Sales, Nothing You Say Matters,» Ascendant Consulting, 2005.

2.25 The habit loop is spinning because Harold E. Doweiko, Concepts of Chemical Dependency (Belmont, Calif.: Brooks Cole, 2008), 362—82.

2.26 how new habits are created K. C. Berridge and M. L. Kringelbach, «Affective Neuroscience of Pleasure: Reward in Humans and Animals,» Psychopharmacology 199 (2008): 457—80; Wolfram Schultz, «Behavioral Theories and the Neurophysiology of Reward,» Annual Review of Psychology 57 (2006): 87—115.

2.27 «wanting evolves into obsessive craving» T. E. Robinson and K. C. Berridge, «The Neural Basis of Drug Craving: An Incentive-Sensitization Theory of Addiction,» Brain Research Reviews 18 (1993): 247—91.

2.28 In 2002 researchers at New Mexico Krystina A. Finlay, David Trafimow, and Aimee Villarreal, «Predicting Exercise and Health Behavioral Intentions: Attitudes, Subjective Norms, and Other Behavioral Determinants,» Journal of Applied Social Psychology 32 (2002): 342—56.

2.29 The cue, in addition to triggering Henk Aarts, Theo Paulussen, and Herman Schaalma, «Physical Exercise Habit: On the Conceptualization and Formation of Habitual Health Behaviours,» Health Education Research 12 (1997): 363—74.

2.30 Within a year, customers had spent Christine Bittar, «Freshbreeze at P&G,» Brandweek, October 1999.

2.31 Unlike other pastes Patent 1,619,067, assigned to Rudolph A. Kuever.

2.32 Want to craft a new eating J. Brug, E. de Vet, J. de Nooijer, and B. Verplanken, «Predicting Fruit Consumption: Cognitions, Intention, and Habits,» Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 38 (2006): 73—81.

2.33 The craving drove the habit For a full inventory of studies from the National Weight Control Registry, see http://www.nwcr.ws/Research/published%20research.htm.

2.34 Yet, while everyone brushes D. I. McLean and R. Gallagher, «Sunscreens: Use and Misuse,» Dermatologic Clinics 16 (1998): 219—26.

CHAPTER THREE

3.1 The game clock at the far end I am indebted to the time and writings of Tony Dungy and Nathan Whitacker, including Quiet Strength: The Principles, Practices, and Priorities of a Winning Life (Carol Stream, Ill.: Tyndale House, 2008); The Mentor Leader: Secrets to Building People and Teams That Win Consistently (Carol Stream, Ill.: Tyndale House, 2010); Uncommon: Finding Your Path to Significance (Carol Stream, Ill.: Tyndale House, 2011). I also owe a debt to Jene Bramel of Footballguys.com; Matthew Bowen of National Football Post and the St. Louis Rams, Green Bay Packers, Washington Redskins, and Buffalo Bills; Tim Layden of Sports Illustrated and his book Blood, Sweat, and Chalk: The Ultimate Football Playbook: How the Great Coaches Built Today’s Teams (New York: Sports Illustrated, 2010); Pat Kirwan, Take Your Eye Off the Ball: How to Watch Football by Knowing Where to Look (Chicago: Triumph Books, 2010); Nunyo Demasio, «The Quiet Leader,» Sports Illustrated, February 2007; Bill Plaschke, «Color Him Orange,» Los Angeles Times, September 1, 1996; Chris Harry, « ’Pups’ Get to Bark for the Bucs,» Orlando Sentinel, September 5, 2001; Jeff Legwold, «Coaches Find Defense in Demand,» Rocky Mountain News, November 11, 2005; and Martin Fennelly, «Quiet Man Takes Charge with Bucs,» The Tampa Tribune, August 9, 1996.

3.2 It’s late on a Sunday I am indebted to Fox Sports for providing game tapes, and to Kevin Kernan, «The Bucks Stomp Here,» The San Diego Union-Tribune, November 18, 1996; Jim Trotter, «Harper Says He’s Done for Season,» The San Diego Union-Tribune, November 18, 1996; Les East, «Still Worth the Wait,» The Advocate (Baton Rouge, La.), November 21, 1996.

3.3 described as putting the «less» in «hopeless» Mitch Albom, «The Courage of Detroit,» Sports Illustrated, September 22, 2009.

3.4 «America’s Orange Doormat» Pat Yasinskas, «Behind the Scenes,» The Tampa Tribune, November 19, 1996.

3.5 He knew from experience In a fact-checking letter, Dungy emphasized that these were not new strategies, but instead were approaches «I had learned from working with the Steelers in the seventies and eighties. What was unique, and what I think spread, was the idea of how to get those ideas across.… [My plan was] not overwhelming opponents with strategy or abundance of plays and formations but winning with execution. Being very sure of what we were doing and doing it well. Minimize the mistakes we would make. Playing with speed because we were not focusing on too many things.»

3.6 When his strategy works For more on the Tampa 2 defense, see Rick Gosselin, «The Evolution of the Cover Two,» The Dallas Morning News, November 3, 2005; Mohammed Alo, «Tampa 2 Defense,» The Football Times, July 4, 2006; Chris Harry, «Duck and Cover,» Orlando Sentinel, August 26, 2005; Jason Wilde, «What to Do with Tampa-2?» Wisconsin State Journal, September 22, 2005; Jim Thomas, «Rams Take a Run at Tampa 2,» St. Louis Post-Dispatch, October 16, 2005; Alan Schmadtke, «Dungy’s ’D’ No Secret,» Orlando Sentinel, September 6, 2006; Jene Bramel, «Guide to NFL Defenses,» The Fifth Down (blog), The New York Times, September 6, 2010.

3.7 Sitting in the basement William L. White, Slaying the Dragon (Bloomington, Ill.: Lighthouse Training Institute, 1998).

3.8 named Bill Wilson Alcoholics Anonymous World Service, The A.A. Service Manual Combined with Twelve Concepts for World Service (New York: Alcoholics Anonymous, 2005); Alcoholics Anonymous World Service, Alcoholics Anonymous: The Story of How Many Thousands of Men and Women Have Recovered from Alcoholism (New York: Alcoholics Anonymous, 2001); Alcoholics Anonymous World Service, Alcoholics Anonymous Comes of Age: A Brief History of A.A. (New York: Alcoholics Anonymous, 1957); Alcoholics Anonymous World Service, As Bill Sees It (New York: Alcoholics Anonymous, 1967); Bill W., Bill W.: My First 40 Years—An Autobiography by the Cofounder of Alcoholics Anonymous (Hazelden Center City, Minn.: Hazelden Publishing, 2000); Francis Hartigan, Bill W.: A Biography of Alcoholics Anonymous Cofounder Bill Wilson (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2009).

3.9 He took a sip and felt Susan Cheever, My Name Is Bill: Bill Wilson—His Life and the Creation of Alcoholics Anonymous (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004).

3.10 Wilson invited him over Ibid.

3.11 At that moment, he later wrote Ernest Kurtz, Not-God: A History of Alcoholics Anonymous (Hazelden Center City, Minn.: Hazelden Publishing, 1991).

3.12 An estimated 2.1 million people Data provided by AA General Service Office Staff, based on 2009 figures.

3.13 as many as 10 million alcoholics Getting firm figures on AA’s membership or those who have achieved sobriety through the program is notoriously difficult, in part because membership is anonymous and in part because there is no requirement to register with a central authority. However, the 10 million person figure, based on conversations with AA researchers, seems reasonable (if unverifiable) given the program’s long history.

3.14 What’s interesting about AA In psychology, this kind of treatment—targeting habits—is often referred to under the umbrella term of «cognitive behavioral therapy,» or in an earlier era, «relapse prevention.» CBT, as it is generally used within the treatment community, often incorporates five basic techniques: (1) Learning, in which the therapist explains the illness to the patient and teaches the patient to identify the symptoms; (2) Monitoring, in which the patient uses a diary to monitor the behavior and the situations triggering it; (3) Competing response, in which the patient cultivates new routines, such as relaxation methods, to offset the problematic behavior; (4) Rethinking, in which a therapist guides the patient to reevaluate how the patient sees situations; and (5) Exposing, in which the therapist helps the patient expose him-or herself to situations that trigger the behavior.

3.15 What AA provides instead Writing about AA is always a difficult proposition, because the program has so many critics and supporters, and there are dozens of interpretations for how and why the program works. In an email, for instance, Lee Ann Kaskutas, a senior scientist at the Alcohol Research Group, wrote that AA indirectly «provides a method for attacking the habits that surround alcohol use. But that is via the people in AA, not the program of AA. The program of AA attacks the base problem, the alcoholic ego, the self-centered, spiritually bereft alcoholic.» It is accurate, Kaskutas wrote, that AA provides solutions for alcoholic habits, such as the slogans «go to a meeting if you want to drink,» and «avoid slippery people, places, and things.» But, Kaskutas wrote, «The slogans aren’t the program. The program is the steps. AA aims to go much deeper than addressing the habit part of drinking, and AA founders would argue that attacking the habit is a half measure that won’t hold you in good stead; you will eventually succumb to drink unless you change more basic things.» For more on the explorations of AA’s science, and debates over the program’s effectiveness, see C. D. Emrick et al., «Alcoholics Anonymous: What Is Currently Known?» in B. S. McCrady and W. R. Miller, eds., Research on Alcoholics Anonymous: Opportunities and Alternatives (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers, 1993), 41—76; John F. Kelly and Mark G. Myers, «Adolescents’ Participation in Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous: Review, Implications, and Future Directions,» Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 39, no. 3 (September 2007): 259—69; D. R. Groh, L. A. Jason, and C. B. Keys, «Social Network Variables in Alcoholics Anonymous: A Literature Review,» Clinical Psychology Review 28, no. 3 (March 2008): 430—50; John Francis Kelly, Molly Magill, and Robert Lauren Stout, «How Do People Recover from Alcohol Dependence? A Systematic Review of the Research on Mechanisms of Behavior Change in Alcoholics Anonymous,» Addiction Research and Theory 17, no. 3 (2009): 236—59.

3.16 sitting in bed Kurtz, Not-God.

3.17 He chose the number twelve I am indebted to Brendan I. Koerner for his advice, and to his article, «Secret of AA: After 75 Years, We Don’t Know How It Works,» Wired, July 2010; D. R. Davis and G. G. Hansen, «Making Meaning of Alcoholics Anonymous for Social Workers: Myths, Metaphors, and Realities,» Social Work 43, no. 2 (1998): 169—82.

3.18 step three, which says Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions (New York: Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc., 2002), 34. Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Alcoholics Anonymous: The Big Book, 4th ed. (New York: Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc., 2002), 59.

3.19 Because of the program’s lack Arthur Cain, «Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure?» Harper’s Magazine, February 1963, 48—52; M. Ferri, L. Amato, and M. Davoli, «Alcoholics Anonymous and Other 12-Step Programmes for Alcohol Dependence,» Addiction 88, no. 4 (1993): 555—62; Harrison M. Trice and Paul Michael Roman, «Delabeling, Relabeling, and Alcoholics Anonymous,» Social Problems 17, no. 4 (1970): 538—46; Robert E. Tournie, «Alcoholics Anonymous as Treatment and as Ideology,» Journal of Studies on Alcohol 40, no. 3 (1979): 230—39; P. E. Bebbington, «The Efficacy of Alcoholics Anonymous: The Elusiveness of Hard Data,» British Journal of Psychiatry 128 (1976): 572—80.

3.20 «It’s not obvious from the way they’re written» Emrick et al., «Alcoholics Anonymous: What Is Currently Known?»; J. S. Tonigan, R. Toscova, and W. R. Miller, «Meta-analysis of the Literature on Alcoholics Anonymous: Sample and Study Characteristics Moderate Findings,» Journal of Studies on Alcohol 57 (1995): 65—72; J. S. Tonigan, W. R. Miller, and G. J. Connors, «Project MATCH Client Impressions About Alcoholics Anonymous: Measurement Issues and Relationship to Treatment Outcome,» Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 18 (2000): 25—41; J. S. Tonigan, «Spirituality and Alcoholics Anonymous,» Southern Medical Journal 100, no. 4 (2007): 437—40.

3.21 One particularly dramatic demonstration Heinze et al., «Counteracting Incentive Sensitization in Severe Alcohol Dependence Using Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Accumbens: Clinical and Basic Science Aspects,» Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 3, no. 22 (2009).

3.22 graduate student named Mandy «Mandy» is a pseudonym used by the author of the case study this passage draws from.

3.23 Mississippi State University B. A. Dufrene, Steuart Watson, and J. S. Kazmerski, «Functional Analysis and Treatment of Nail Biting,» Behavior Modification 32 (2008): 913—27.

3.24 The counseling center referred Mandy In a fact-checking letter, the author of this study, Brad Dufrene, wrote that the patient «consented to services at a university-based clinic which was a training and research clinic. At the outset of participating in therapy, she consented to allowing us to use data from her case as in research presentations or publications.»

3.25 one of the developers of habit reversal training N. H. Azrin and R. G. Nunn, «Habit-Reversal: A Method of Eliminating Nervous Habits and Tics,» Behaviour Research and Therapy 11, no. 4 (1973): 619—28; Nathan H. Azrin and Alan L. Peterson, «Habit Reversal for the Treatment of Tourette Syndrome,» Behaviour Research and Therapy 26, no. 4 (1988): 347—51; N. H. Azrin, R. G. Nunn, and S. E. Frantz, «Treatment of Hairpulling (Trichotillomania): A Comparative Study of Habit Reversal and Negative Practice Training,» Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 11 (1980): 13—20; R. G. Nunn and N. H. Azrin, «Eliminating Nail-Biting by the Habit Reversal Procedure,» Behaviour Research and Therapy 14 (1976): 65—67; N. H. Azrin, R. G. Nunn, and S. E. Frantz-Renshaw, «Habit Reversal Versus Negative Practice Treatment of Nervous Tics,» Behavior Therapy 11, no. 2 (1980): 169—78; N. H. Azrin, R. G. Nunn, and S. E. Frantz-Renshaw, «Habit Reversal Treatment of Thumbsucking,» Behaviour Research and Therapy 18, no. 5 (1980): 395—99.

3.26 Today, habit reversal therapy In a fact-checking letter, Dufrene emphasized that methods such as those used with Mandy—known as «simplified habit reversal training»—sometimes differ from other methods of HRT. «My understanding is that Simplified Habit Reversal is effective for reducing habits (e.g., hair pulling, nail biting, thumb sucking), tics (motor and vocal), and stuttering,» he wrote. However, other conditions might require more intense forms of HRT. «Effective treatments for depression, smoking, gambling problems, etc. fall under the umbrella term ’Cognitive Behavioral Therapy,’ » Dufrene wrote, emphasizing that simplified habit replacement is often not effective for those problems, which require more intensive interventions.

3.27 verbal and physical tics R. G. Nunn, K. S. Newton, and P. Faucher, «2.5 Years Follow-up of Weight and Body Mass Index Values in the Weight Control for Life! Program: A Descriptive Analysis,» Addictive Behaviors 17, no. 6 (1992): 579—85; D. J. Horne, A. E. White, and G. A. Varigos, «A Preliminary Study of Psychological Therapy in the Management of Atopic Eczema,» British Journal of Medical Psychology 62, no. 3 (1989): 241—48; T. Deckersbach et al., «Habit Reversal Versus Supportive Psychotherapy in Tourette’s Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial and Predictors of Treatment Response,» Behaviour Research and Therapy 44, no. 8 (2006): 1079—90; Douglas W. Woods and Raymond G. Miltenberger, «Habit Reversal: A Review of Applications and Variations,» Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 26, no. 2 (1995): 123—31; D. W. Woods, C. T. Wetterneck, and C. A. Flessner, «A Controlled Evaluation of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Plus Habit Reversal for Trichotillomania,» Behaviour Research and Therapy 44, no. 5 (2006): 639—56.

3.28 More than three dozen studies J. O. Prochaska and C. C. DiClemente, «Stages and Processes of Self-Change in Smoking: Toward an Integrative Model of Change,» Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 51, no. 3 (1983): 390—95; James Prochaska, «Strong and Weak Principles for Progressing from Precontemplation to Action on the Basis of Twelve Problem Behaviors,» Health Psychology 13 (1994): 47—51; James Prochaska et al., «Stages of Change and Decisional Balance for 12 Problem Behaviors,» Health Psychology 13 (1994): 39—46; James Prochaska and Michael Goldstein, «Process of Smoking Cessation: Implications for Clinicians,» Clinics in Chest Medicine 12, no. 4 (1991): 727—35; James O. Prochaska, John Norcross, and Carlo DiClemente, Changing for Good: A Revolutionary Six-Stage Program for Overcoming Bad Habits and Moving Your Life Positively Forward (New York: HarperCollins, 1995).

3.29 «Most of the time, it’s not physical» Devin Gordon, «Coach Till You Drop,» Newsweek, September 2, 2002, 48.

3.30 during crucial, high-stress moments In fact-checking correspondence, Dungy said he «would not characterize it as falling apart in big games. I would call it not playing well enough in crucial situations, not being able to put those lessons into practice when it was all on the line. St. Louis had one of the highest scoring offenses in the history of the NFL. They managed one TD that game with about 3 minutes left. A team that was scoring almost 38 points a game got 1 TD and 1 FG against the defense, so I hardly think they ’fell apart.’ »

3.31 «What they were really saying» In fact-checking correspondence, Dungy said «we did lose again in the playoffs to Phil, in another poor showing. This was probably our worst playoff game and it was done under the cloud of rumors, so everyone knew that … ownership would be making a coaching change. I think we had instances in the past where we didn’t truly trust the system, but I’m not sure that was the case here. Philadelphia was just a tough match-up for us and we couldn’t get past them. And not playing well, the score turned out to be ugly. However, it was one of our worst games since the ’96 season.»

3.32 began asking alcoholics John W. Traphagan, «Multidimensional Measurement of Religiousness/Spirituality for Use in Health Research in Cross-Cultural Perspective,» Research on Aging 27 (2005): 387—419. Many of those studies use the scale published in G. J. Conners et al., «Measure of Religious Background and Behavior for Use in Behavior Change Research,» Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 10, no. 2 (June 1996): 90—96.

3.33 Then they looked at the data Sarah Zemore, «A Role for Spiritual Change in the Benefits of 12-Step Involvement,» Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 31 (2007): 76s—79s; Lee Ann Kaskutas et al., «The Role of Religion, Spirituality, and Alcoholics Anonymous in Sustained Sobriety,» Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 21 (2003): 1—16; Lee Ann Kaskutas et al., «Alcoholics Anonymous Careers: Patterns of AA Involvement Five Years After Treatment Entry,» Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 29, no. 11 (2005): 1983—1990; Lee Ann Kaskutas, «Alcoholics Anonymous Effectiveness: Faith Meets Science,» Journal of Addictive Diseases 28, no. 2 (2009): 145—57; J. Scott Tonigan, W. R. Miller, and Carol Schermer, «Atheists, Agnostics, and Alcoholics Anonymous,» Journal of Studies on Alcohol 63, no. 5 (2002): 534—54.

3.34 Paramedics had rushed him Jarrett Bell, «Tragedy Forces Dungy ’to Live in the Present,’ » USA Today, September 1, 2006; Ohm Youngmisuk, «The Fight to Live On,» New York Daily News, September 10, 2006; Phil Richards, «Dungy: Son’s Death Was a ’Test,’ » The Indianapolis Star, January 25, 2007; David Goldberg, «Tragedy Lessened by Game,» Tulsa World, January 30, 2007; «Dungy Makes History After Rough Journey,» Akron Beacon Journal, February 5, 2007; «From Pain, a Revelation,» The New York Times, July 2007; «Son of Colts’ Coach Tony Dungy Apparently Committed Suicide,» Associated Press, December 22, 2005; Larry Stone, «Colts Take Field with Heavy Hearts,» The Seattle Times, December 25, 2005; Clifton Brown, «Dungy’s Son Is Found Dead; Suicide Suspected,» The New York Times, December 23, 2005; Peter King, «A Father’s Wish,» Sports Illustrated, February 2007.

3.35 In a 1994 Harvard study Todd F. Heatherton and Patricia A. Nichols, «Personal Accounts of Successful Versus Failed Attempts at Life Change,» Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20, no. 6 (1994): 664—75.

3.36 Dungy’s team, once again, was I am indebted to Michael Smith, « ’Simple’ Scheme Nets Big Gains for Trio of Defenses,» ESPN.com December 26, 2005.

3.37 It’s our time Michael Silver, «This Time, It’s Manning’s Moment,» Sports Illustrated, February 2007.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 They were there to meet For details on O’Neill’s life and Alcoa, I am indebted to Paul O’Neill for his generous time, as well as numerous Alcoa executives. I also drew on Pamela Varley, «Vision and Strategy: Paul H. O’Neill at OMB and Alcoa,» Kennedy School of Government, 1992; Peter Zimmerman, «Vision and Strategy: Paul H. O’Neill at OMB and Alcoa Sequel,» Kennedy School of Government, 1994; Kim B. Clark and Joshua Margolis, «Workplace Safety at Alcoa (A),» Harvard Business Review, October 31, 1999; Steven J. Spear, «Workplace Safety at Alcoa (B),» Harvard Business Review, December 22, 1999; Steven Spear, Chasing the Rabbit: How Market Leaders Outdistance the Competition and How Great Companies Can Catch Up and Win (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009); Peter Kolesar, «Vision, Values, and Milestones: Paul O’Neill Starts Total Quality at Alcoa,» California Management Review 35, no. 3 (1993): 133—65; Ron Suskind, The Price of Loyalty: George W. Bush, the White House, and the Education of Paul O’Neill (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004); Michael Arndt, «How O’Neill Got Alcoa Shining,» BusinessWeek, February 2001; Glenn Kessler, «O’Neill Offers Cure for Workplace Injuries,» The Washington Post, March 31, 2001; «Pittsburgh Health Initiative May Serve as US Model,» Reuters, May 31; S. Smith, «America’s Safest Companies: Alcoa: Finding True North,» Occupational Hazards 64, no. 10 (2002): 53; Thomas A. Stewart, «A New Way to Wake Up a Giant,» Fortune, October 1990; «O’Neill’s Tenure at Alcoa Mixed,» Associated Press, December 21, 2000; Leslie Wayne, «Designee Takes a Deft Touch and a Firm Will to Treasury,» The New York Times, January 16, 2001; Terence Roth, «Alcoa Had Loss of $14.7 Million in 4th Quarter,» The Wall Street Journal, January 21, 1985; Daniel F. Cuff, «Alcoa Hedges Its Bets, Slowly,» The New York Times, October 24, 1985; «Alcoa Is Stuck as Two Unions Reject Final Bid,» The Wall Street Journal, June 2, 1986; Mark Russell, «Alcoa Strike Ends as Two Unions Agree to Cuts in Benefits and to Wage Freezes,» The Wall Street Journal, July 7, 1986; Thomas F. O’Boyle and Peter Pae, «The Long View: O’Neill Recasts Alcoa with His Eyes Fixed on the Decade Ahead,» The Wall Street Journal, April 9, 1990; Tracey E. Benson, «Paul O’Neill: True Innovation, True Values, True Leadership,» Industry Week 242, no. 8 (1993): 24; Joseph Kahn, «Industrialist with a Twist,» The New York Times, December 21, 2000.

4.2 O’Neill was one Michael Lewis, «O’Neill’s List,» The New York Times, January 123, 2002; Ron Suskind, The Price of Loyalty: George W. Bush, the White House, and the Education of Paul O’Neill (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004).

4.3 What mattered was erecting In a fact-checking conversation, O’Neill made clear that the comparison between organizational routines and individual habits is one that he understands and agrees with, but did not explicitly occur to him at the time. «I can relate to that, but I don’t own that idea,» he told me. Then, as now, he recognizes routines such as the hospital-building program, which is known as the Hill-Burton Act, as an outgrowth of a pattern. «The reason they kept building was because the political instincts are still there that bringing money back home to the district is how people think they get reelected, no matter how much overcapacity we were creating,» he told me.

4.4 «Routines are the organizational analogue» Geoffrey M. Hodgson, «The Nature and Replication of Routines,» unpublished manuscript, University of Hertfordshire, 2004, http://www.gredeg.cnrs.fr/routines/workshop/papers/Hodgson.pdf.

4.5 It became an organizational In a fact-checking conversation, O’Neill wanted to stress that these examples of NASA and the EPA, though illustrative, do not draw on his insights or experiences. They are independently reported.

4.6 When lawyers asked for permission Karl E. Weick, «Small Wins: Redefining the Scale of Social Problems,» American Psychologist 39 (1984): 40—49.

4.7 By 1975, the EPA was issuing http://www.epa.gov.

4.8 He instituted an automatic routine In a fact-checking conversation, O’Neill stressed that he believes that promotions and bonuses should not be tied to worker safety, any more than they should be tied to honesty. Rather, safety is a value that every Alcoa worker should embrace, regardless of the rewards. «It’s like saying, ’We’re going to pay people more if they don’t lie,’ which suggests that it’s okay to lie a little bit, because we’ll pay you a little bit less,» he told me. However, it is important to note that in interviews with other Alcoa executives from this period, they said it was widely known that promotions were available only to those employees who evidenced a commitment to safety, and that promise of promotion served as a reward, even if that was not O’Neill’s intention.

4.9 Any time someone was injured In a fact-checking conversation, O’Neill made clear that, at the time, the concept of the «habit loop» was unknown to him. He didn’t necessarily think of these programs as fulfilling a criterion for habits, though in retrospect, he acknowledges how his efforts are aligned with more recent research indicating how organizational habits emerge.

4.10 Take, for instance, studies from P. Callaghan, «Exercise: A Neglected Intervention in Mental Health Care?» Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 11 (2004): 476—83; S. N. Blair, «Relationships Between Exercise or Physical Activity and Other Health Behaviors,» Public Health Reports 100 (2009): 172—80; K. J. Van Rensburg, A. Taylor, and T. Hodgson, «The Effects of Acute Exercise on Attentional Bias Toward Smoking-Related Stimuli During Temporary Abstinence from Smoking,» Addiction 104, no. 11 (2009): 1910—17; E. R. Ropelle et al., «IL-6 and IL-10 Anti-inflammatory Activity Links Exercise to Hypothalamic Insulin and Leptin Sensitivity Through IKKb and ER Stress Inhibition,» PLoS Biology 8, no. 8 (2010); P. M. Dubbert, «Physical Activity and Exercise: Recent Advances and Current Challenges,» Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 70 (2002): 526—36; C. Quinn, «Training as Treatment,» Nursing Standard 24 (2002): 18—19.

4.11 Studies have documented that families S. K. Hamilton and J. H. Wilson, «Family Mealtimes: Worth the Effort?» Infant, Child, and Adolescent Nutrition 1 (2009): 346—50; American Dietetic Association, «Eating Together as a Family Creates Better Eating Habits Later in Life,» ScienceDaily.com September 4, 2007, accessed April 1, 2011.

4.12 Making your bed every morning Richard Layard, Happiness: Lessons from a New Science (New York: Penguin Press, 2005); Daniel Nettle, Happiness: The Science Behind Your Smile (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Marc Ian Barasch, Field Notes on the Compassionate Life: A Search for the Soul of Kindness (Emmaus, Penn.: Rodale, 2005); Alfie Kohn, Unconditional Parenting: Moving from Rewards and Punishments to Love and Reason (New York: Atria Books, 2005); P. Alex Linley and Stephen Joseph, eds., Positive Psychology in Practice (Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2004).

4.13 By 7 A.M., I am indebted to the time and help of Bob Bowman in understanding Phelps’s training, as well as to Michael Phelps and Alan Abra-hamson, No Limits: The Will to Succeed (New York: Free Press, 2009); Michael Phelps and Brian Cazeneuve, Beneath the Surface (Champaign, Ill.: Sports Publishing LLC, 2008); Bob Schaller, Michael Phelps: The Untold Story of a Champion (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2008); Karen Crouse, «Avoiding the Deep End When It Comes to Jitters,» The New York Times, July 26, 2009; Mark Levine, «Out There,» The New York Times, August 3, 2008; Eric Adelson, «And After That, Mr. Phelps Will Leap a Tall Building in a Single Bound,» ESPN.com July 28, 2008; Sean Gregory, «Michael Phelps: A Real GOAT,» Time, August 13, 2008; Norman Frauenheim, «Phelps Takes 4th, 5th Gold Medals,» The Arizona Republic, August 12, 2008.

4.14 «Once a small win has been accomplished» Karl E. Weick, «Small Wins: Redefining the Scale of Social Problems,» American Psychologist 39 (1984): 40—49.

4.15 Small wins fuel transformative changes «Small Wins—The Steady Application of a Small Advantage,» Center for Applied Research, 1998, accessed June 24, 2011, http://www.cfar.com/Documents/Smal_win.pdf.

4.16 It seemed like the gay community’s For more details on this incident, see Alix Spiegel’s wonderful «81 Words,» broadcast on This American Life, January 18, 2002, http://www.thisamericanlife.org/.

4.17 HQ 71-471 («Abnormal Sexual Relations, Including Sexual Crimes») Malcolm Spector and John I. Kitsuse, Constructing Social Problems (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2001).

4.18 He couldn’t tell if they were leaking Phelps and Abrahamson, No Limits.

4.19 It was one additional victory For further discussion of habits and Olympic swimmers, see Daniel Chambliss, «The Mundanity of Excellence,» Sociological Theory 7 (1989): 70—86.

4.20 He was killed instantly Paul O’Neill keynote speech, June 25, 2002, at the Juran Center, Carlson School of Management, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

4.21 Rural areas, in particular «Infant Mortality Rates, 1950—2005,» http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0779935.html; William H. Berentsen, «German Infant Mortality 1960—1980,» Geographical Review 77 (1987): 157—70; Paul Norman et al., «Geographical Trends in Infant Mortality: England and Wales, 1970—2006,» Health Statistics Quarterly 40 (2008): 18—29.

4.22 Today, the U.S. infant mortality World Bank, World Development Indicators. In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, O’Neill wrote: «This is correct, but I would not take credit for our society doing a better job in reducing infant mortality.»

4.23 They began diets and joined gyms T. A. Wadden, M. L. Butryn, and C. Wilson, «Lifestyle Modification for the Management of Obesity,» Gastro-enterology 132 (2007): 2226—38.

4.24 Then, in 2009 a group of researchers J. F. Hollis et al., «Weight Loss During the Intensive Intervention Phase of the Weight-Loss Maintenance Trial,» American Journal of Preventative Medicine 35 (2008): 118—26. See also L. P. Svetkey et al., «Comparison of Strategies for Sustaining Weight Loss, the Weight Loss Maintenance Randomized Controlled Trial,» JAMA 299 (2008): 1139—48; A. Fitch and J. Bock, «Effective Dietary Therapies for Pediatric Obesity Treatment,» Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders 10 (2009): 231—36; D. Engstrom, «Eating Mindfully and Cultivating Satisfaction: Modifying Eating Patterns in a Bariatric Surgery Patient,» Bariatric Nursing and Surgical Patient Care 2 (2007): 245—50; J. R. Peters et al., «Eating Pattern Assessment Tool: A Simple Instrument for Assessing Dietary Fat and Cholesterol Intake,» Journal of the American Dietetic Association 94 (1994): 1008—13; S. M. Rebro et al., «The Effect of Keeping Food Records on Eating Patterns,» Journal of the American Dietetic Association 98 (1998): 1163—65.

4.25 «After a while, the journal» For more on weight loss studies, see R. R. Wing and James O. Hill, «Successful Weight Loss Maintenance,» Annual Review of Nutrition 21 (2001): 323—41; M. L. Klem et al., «A Descriptive Study of Individuals Successful at Long-Term Maintenance of Substantial Weight Loss,» American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 66 (1997): 239—46; M. J. Mahoney, N. G. Moura, and T. C. Wade, «Relative Efficacy of Self-Reward, Self-Punishment, and Self-Monitoring Techniques for Weight Loss,» Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 40 (1973): 404—7; M. J. Franz et al., «Weight Loss Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Weight-Loss Clinical Trials with a Minimum 1-Year Follow-up,» Journal of the American Dietetic Association 107 (2007): 1755—67; A. DelParigi et al., «Successful Dieters Have Increased Neural Activity in Cortical Areas Involved in the Control of Behavior,» International Journal of Obesity 31 (2007): 440—48.

4.26 researchers referred to as «grit» Jonah Lehrer, «The Truth About Grit,» The Boston Globe, August 2, 2009.

4.27 «despite failure, adversity, and plateaus in progress» A. L. Duckworth et al., «Grit: Perseverance and Passion for Long-Term Goals,» Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (2007): 1087—1101.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 willpower is the single most important J. P. Tangney, R. F. Baumeister, and A. L. Boone, «High Self-Control Predicts Good Adjustment, Less Pathology, Better Grades, and Interpersonal Success,» Journal of Personality 72, no. 2 (2004): 271—324; Paul Karoly, «Mechanisms of Self-Regulation: A Systems View,» Annual Review of Psychology 44 (1993): 23—52; James J. Gross, Jane M. Richards, and Oliver P. John, «Emotional Regulation in Everyday Life,» in Emotion Regulation in Families: Pathways to Dysfunction and Health, ed. Douglas K. Snyder, Jeffry A. Simpson, and Jan N. Hughes (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2006); Katleen De Stobbeleir, Susan Ashford, and Dirk Buyens, «From Trait and Context to Creativity at Work: Feedback-Seeking Behavior as a Self-Regulation Strategy for Creative Performance,» Vlerick Leuven Gent Working Paper Series, September 17, 2008; Babette Raabe, Michael Frese, and Terry A. Beehr, «Action Regulation Theory and Career Self-Management,» Journal of Vocational Behavior 70 (2007): 297—311; Albert Bandura, «The Primacy of Self-Regulation in Health Promotion,» Applied Psychology 54 (2005): 245—54; Robert G. Lord et al., «Self-Regulation at Work,» Annual Review of Psychology 61 (2010): 543—68; Colette A. Frayne and Gary P. Latham, «Application of Social Learning Theory to Employee Self-Management of Attendance,» Journal of Applied Psychology 72 (1987): 387—92; Colette Frayne and J. M. Geringer, «Self-Management Training for Improving Job Performance: A Field Experiment Involving Salespeople,» Journal of Applied Psychology 85 (2000): 361—72.

5.2 «Self-discipline has a bigger effect on» Angela L. Duckworth and Martin E. P. Seligman, «Self-Discipline Outdoes IQ in Predicting Academic Performance of Adolescents,» Psychological Science 16 (2005): 939—44.

5.3 Executives wrote workbooks that Information on Starbucks training methods is drawn from numerous interviews, as well as the company’s training materials. Information on training materials comes from copies provided by Starbucks employees and court records, including the following internal Starbucks documents and training manuals: Starbucks Coffee Company Partner Guide, U.S. Store Version; Learning Coach Guide; In-Store Learning Coaches Guide; Shift Supervisor Learning Journey; Retail Management Training; Supervisory Skills Facilitator Guide; Supervisory Skills Partner Workbook; Shift Supervisor Training: Store Manager’s Planning and Coaches Guide; Managers’ Guide: Learning to Lead, Level One and Two; Supervisory Skills: Learning to Lead Facilitators Guide; First Impressions Guide; Store Manager Training Plan/Guide; District Manager Training Plan/Guide; Partner Resources Manual; Values Walk. In a statement sent in response to fact-checking inquiries, a Starbucks representative wrote: «In reviewing, we felt that your overall theme focuses on emotional intelligence (EQ) and that we attract partners who need development in this area—this is not true holistically. It’s important to note that 70 percent of U.S. partners are students and learning in a lot of ways in their life. What Starbucks provides—and partners are inclined to join because of it—is an environment that matches their values, a place to be a part of something bigger (like community), an approach that focuses on problem solving by showing not telling and a successful way to deliver inspired service.» The company added that «we’d like to note that as part of our Customer Service Vision, our partners are trusted completely and are empowered to use their best judgment. We believe that this level of trust and empowerment is unique, and that partners rise to the occasion when we treat them with respect.»

5.4 It was as if the marshmallow-ignoring kids Harriet Mischel and Walter Mischel, «The Development of Children’s Knowledge of Self-Control Strategies,» Child Development 54 (1983), 603—19; W. Mischel, Y. Shoda, and M. I. Rodriguez, «Delay of Gratification in Children,» Science 244 (1989): 933—38; Walter Mischel et al., «The Nature of Adolescent Competencies Predicted by Preschool Delay of Gratification,» Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (1988): 687—96; J. Metcalfe and W. Mischel, «A Hot/Cool-System Analysis of Delay of Gratification: Dynamics of Will Power,» Psychological Review 106 (1999): 3—19; Jonah Lehrer, «The Secret of Self Control,» The New Yorker, May 18, 2009.

5.5 Some have suggested it helps clarify In a fact-checking email, Muraven wrote: «There is research to suggest that marital problems spring from low self-control and that depletion contributes to poor outcomes when couples are discussing tense relationship issues. Likewise, we have found that on days that require more self-control than average, people are more likely to lose control over their drinking. There is also some research that suggests depleted individuals make poorer decisions than nondepleted individuals. These findings may be extended to explain extramarital affairs or mistakes by physicians, but that has not been» directly shown to be a cause-and-effect relationship.

5.6 «If you use it up too early» Roy F. Baumeister et al., «Ego-Depletion: Is the Active Self a Limited Resource?» Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 18 (1998): 130—50; R. F. Baumeister, M. Muraven, and D. M. Tice, «Self-Control as a Limited Resource: Regulatory Depletion Patterns,» Psychological Bulletin 126 (1998): 247—59; R. F. Baumeister, M. Muraven, and D. M. Tice, «Longitudinal Improvement of Self-Regulation Through Practice: Building Self-Control Strength Through Repeated Exercise,» Journal of Social Psychology 139 (1999): 446—57; R. F. Baumeister, M. Muraven, and D. M. Tice, «Ego Depletion: A Resource Model of Volition, Self-Regulation, and Controlled Processing,» Social Cognition 74 (2000): 1252—65; Roy F. Baumeister and Mark Muraven, «Self-Regulation and Depletion of Limited Resources: Does Self-Control Resemble a Muscle?» Psychological Bulletin 126 (2000): 247—59; See also M. S. Hagger et al., «Ego Depletion and the Strength Model of Self-Control: A Meta-Analysis,» Psychological Bulletin 136 (2010): 495—25; R. G. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs, and D. M. Tice, «The Strength Model of Self-Control,» Current Directions in Psychological Science 16 (2007): 351—55; M. I. Posne and M. K. Rothbart, «Developing Mechanisms of Self-Regulation,» Development and Psychopathology 12 (2000): 427—41; Roy F. Baumeister and Todd F. Heatherton, «Self-Regulation Failure: An Overview,» Psychological Inquiry 7 (1996): 1—15; Kathleen D. Vohs et al., «Making Choices Impairs Subsequent Self-Control: A Limited-Resource Account of Decision Making, Self-Regulation, and Active Initiative,» Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94 (2008): 883—98; Daniel Romer et al., «Can Adolescents Learn Self-Control? Delay of Gratification in the Development of Control over Risk Taking,» Prevention Science 11 (2010): 319—30. In a fact-checking email, Muraven wrote: «Our research suggests that people often don’t even realize that they are depleted and that the first act of self-control affected them. Instead, exerting self-control causes people to be less willing to work hard on subsequent self-control efforts (ultimately, this is a theory of motivation, not cognition).… [E]ven after the most depleting day, people still don’t urinate on the floor. Again, this suggests the motivational aspect of the theory—they lack the motivation to force themselves to do things that are less important to them. I realize this may seem like splitting hairs, but it is critical to understand that self-control doesn’t fail because the person cannot muster the needed resources. Instead it fails because the effort seems too great for the payoff. Basically, I don’t want the next murderer to say that he was depleted so he couldn’t control himself.»

5.7 They enrolled two dozen people Megan Oaten and K. Cheng, «Longitudinal Gains in Self-Regulation from Regular Physical Exercise,» Journal of Health Psychology 11 (2006): 717—33. See also Roy F. Baumeister et al., «Self-Regulation and Personality: How Interventions Increase Regulatory Success, and How Depletion Moderates the Effects of Traits on Behavior,» Journal of Personality 74 (2006): 1773—1801.

5.8 So they designed another experiment Megan Oaten and K. Cheng, «Improvements in Self-Control from Financial Monitoring,» Journal of Economic Psychology 28 (2007): 487—501.

5.9 fifteen fewer cigarettes each day Roy F. Baumeister et al., «Self-Regulation and Personality.»

5.10 They enrolled forty-five Ibid.

5.11 Heatherton, a researcher at Dartmouth For a selection of Heatherton’s fascinating work, see Todd F. Heatherton, Ph.D., http://www.dartmouth.edu/~heath/#Pubs last modified June 30, 2009.

5.12 Many of these schools have dramatically Lehrer, «The Secret of Self Control.»

5.13 A five-year-old who can follow In a fact-checking email, Dr. Heatherton expanded upon this idea: «Exactly how the brain does this is somewhat unclear, although I propose that people develop better frontal control over subcortical reward centers.… The repeated practice helps strengthen the ’muscle’ (although clearly it is not a muscle; more likely it is better prefrontal cortical control or the development of a strong network of brain regions involved in controlling behavior).» For more information, see Todd F. Heatherton and Dylan D. Wagner, «Cognitive Neuroscience of Self-Regulation Failure,» Trends in Cognitive Sciences 15 (2011): 132—39.

5.14 They sponsored weight-loss classes In a fact-checking email, a Starbucks spokesman wrote: «Currently, Starbucks offers discounts at many of the national fitness clubs. We believe that this discussion should be more around overall health and wellness options provided to our partners, rather than focusing specifically on gym memberships. We know that our partners want to find ways to be well and we continue to look for programs that will enable them to do that.»

5.15 opening seven new stores every day Michael Herriman et al., «A Crack in the Mug: Can Starbucks Mend It?» Harvard Business Review, October 2008.

5.16 In 1992, a British psychologist Sheina Orbell and Paschal Sheeran, «Motivational and Volitional Processes in Action Initiation: A Field Study of the Role of Implementation Intentions,» Journal of Applied Social Psychology 30, no. 4 (April 2000): 780—97.

5.17 An impatient crowd might overwhelm In a fact-checking statement, a Starbucks spokesman wrote: «Overall accurate assessment, however, we would argue that any job is stressful. As mentioned above, one of the key elements of our Customer Service Vision is that every partner owns the customer experience. This empowerment lets partners know that the company trusts them to resolve issues and helps create the confidence to successfully navigate these moments.»

5.18 The company identified specific rewards These details were confirmed with Starbucks employees and executives. In a fact-checking statement, however, a Starbucks spokesman wrote: «This is not accurate.» The spokesman declined to provide further details.

5.19 We Listen to the customer In a fact-checking statement, a Starbucks spokesman wrote: «While it is certainly not incorrect or wrong to refer to it, LATTE is no longer part of our formal training. In fact, we are moving away from more prescriptive steps like LATTE and are widening the guardrails to enable store partners to engage in problem solving to address the many unique issues that arise in our stores. This model is very dependent on continual effective coaching by shift supervisors, store, and district managers.»

5.20 Then they practice those plans In a fact-checking statement, a Starbucks spokesman wrote: «Overall accurate assessment—we strive to provide tools and training on both skills and behaviors to deliver world-class customer service to every customer on every visit. We would like to note, however, that similar to LATTE (and for the same reasons), we do not formally use Connect, Discover, Respond.»

5.21 « ’This is better than a visit’ » Constance L. Hays, «These Days the Customer Isn’t Always Treated Right,» The New York Times, December 23, 1998.

5.22 Schultz, the man who built Starbucks Information on Schultz from Adi Ignatius, «We Had to Own the Mistakes,» Harvard Business Review, July-August 2010; William W. George and Andrew N. McLean, «Howard Schultz: Building Starbucks Community (A),» Harvard Business Review, June 2006; Koehn, Besharov, and Miller, «Starbucks Coffee Company in the 21st Century,» Harvard Business Review, June 2008; Howard Schultz and Dori Jones Yang, Pour Your Heart Into It: How Starbucks Built a Company One Cup at a Time (New York: Hyperion, 1997); Taylor Clark, Starbucked: A Double Tall Tale of Caffeine, Commerce, and Culture (New York: Little, Brown, 2007); Howard Behar, It’s Not About the Coffee: Lessons on Putting People First from a Life at Starbucks (New York: Portfolio Trade, 2009); John Moore, Tribal Knowledge (New York: Kaplan, 2006); Bryant Simon, Everything but the Coffee: Learning About America from Starbucks (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009). In a fact-checking statement, a Starbucks spokesman wrote: «Although at a very high level, the overall story is correct, a good portion of the details are incorrect or cannot be verified.» That spokesperson declined to detail what was incorrect or provide any clarifications.

5.23 Mark Muraven, who was by then M. Muraven, M. Gagné, and H. Rosman, «Helpful Self-Control: Autonomy Support, Vitality, and Depletion,» Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology 44, no. 3 (2008): 573—85. See also Mark Muraven, «Practicing Self-Control Lowers the Risk of Smoking Lapse,» Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 24, no. 3 (2010): 446—52; Brandon J. Schmeichel and Kathleen Vohs, «Self-Affirmation and Self-Control: Affirming Core Values Counteracts Ego Depletion,» Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96, no. 4 (2009): 770—82; Mark Muraven, «Autonomous Self-Control Is Less Depleting,» Journal of Research in Personality 42, no. 3 (2008): 763—70; Mark Muraven, Dikla Shmueli, and Edward Burkley, «Conserving Self-Control Strength,» Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91, no. 3 (2006): 524—37; Ayelet Fishbach, «The Dynamics of Self-Regulation,» in 11th Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology (New York: Psychology Press, 2001); Tyler F. Stillman et al., «Personal Philosophy and Personnel Achievement: Belief in Free Will Predicts Better Job Performance,» Social Psychological and Personality Science 1 (2010): 43—50; Mark Muraven, «Lack of Autonomy and Self-Control: Performance Contingent Rewards Lead to Greater Depletion,» Motivation and Emotion 31, no. 4 (2007): 322—30.

5.24 One 2010 study This study, as of the time of writing this book, was unpublished and shared with me on the condition its authors would not be revealed. However, further details on employee empowerment studies can be found in C. O. Longenecker, J. A. Scazzero, and T. T. Standfield, «Quality Improvement Through Team Goal Setting, Feedback, and Problem Solving: A Field Experiment,» International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management 11, no. 4 (1994): 45—52; Susan G. Cohen and Gerald E. Ledford, «The Effectiveness of Self-Managing Teams: A Quasi-Experiment,» Human Relations 47, no. 1 (1994): 13—43; Ferris, Rosen, and Barnum, Handbook of Human Resource Management (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers, 1995); Linda Honold, «A Review of the Literature on Employee Empowerment,» Empowerment in Organizations 5, no. 4 (1997): 202—12; Thomas C. Powell, «Total Quality Management and Competitive Advantage: A Review and Empirical Study,» Strategic Management Journal 16 (1995): 15—37.

CHAPTER SIX

6.1 Afterward, he had trouble staying awake Details on this case come from a variety of sources, including interviews with the professionals involved, witnesses in the operating room and emergency room, and news accounts and documents published by the Rhode Island Department of Health. Those include consent orders published by the Rhode Island Department of Health; the Statement of Deficiencies and Plan of Correction published by Rhode Island Hospital on August 8, 2007; Felicia Mello, «Wrong-Site Surgery Case Leads to Probe,» The Boston Globe, August 4, 2007; Felice Freyer, «Doctor to Blame in Wrong-Side Surgery, Panel Says,» The Providence Journal, October 14, 2007; Felice Freyer, «R.I. Hospital Cited for Wrong-Side Surgery,» The Providence Journal, August 3, 2007; «Doctor Disciplined for Wrong-Site Brain Surgery,» Associated Press, August 3, 2007; Felice Freyer, «Surgeon Relied on Memory, Not CT Scan,» The Providence Journal, August 24, 2007; Felicia Mello, «Wrong-Site Surgery Case Leads to Probe 2nd Case of Error at R.I. Hospital This Year,» The Boston Globe, August 4, 2007; «Patient Dies After Surgeon Operates on Wrong Side of Head,» Associated Press, August 24, 2007; «Doctor Back to Work After Wrong-Site Brain Surgery,» Associated Press, October 15, 2007; Felice Freyer, «R.I. Hospital Fined After Surgical Error,» The Providence Journal, November 27, 2007.

6.2 Unless the blood was drained Accounts of this case were described by multiple individuals, and some versions of events differ with one another. Those differences, where appropriate, are described in the notes.

6.3 In 2002, the National Coalition on Health Care http://www.rhodeislandhospital.org.

6.4 «They can’t take away our pride.» Mark Pratt, «Nurses Rally on Eve of Contract Talks,» Associated Press, June 22, 2000; «Union Wants More Community Support During Hospital Contract Dispute,» Associated Press, June 25, 2000; «Nurses Say Staff Shortage Hurting Patients,» Associated Press, August 31, 2000; «Health Department Surveyors Find Hospitals Stressed,» Associated Press, November 18, 2001; «R.I. Hospital Union Delivers Strike Notice,» Associated Press, June 20, 2000.

6.5 Administrators eventually agreed to limit In a statement, a spokes-woman for Rhode Island Hospital said: «The strike was not about relationships between physicians and nurses, it was about wages and work rules. Mandatory overtime is a common practice and has been an issue in unionized hospitals across the country. I don’t know whether there were signs with those messages during the 2000 union negotiations, but if so, they would have referred to mandatory overtime, not relationships between physicians and nurses.»

6.6 to make sure mistakes are avoided American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Joint Commission Guidelines, http://www3.aaos.org/member/safety/guidelines.cfm.

6.7 A half hour later RIDH Statement of Deficiencies and Plan of Correction, August 7, 2007.

6.8 There was no clear indication of In a statement, Rhode Island Hospital said some of these details are incorrect, and referred to the August 7, 2007, RIDH Statement of Deficiencies and Plan of Correction. That document says, «There is no evidence in the medical record that the Nurse Practitioner, employed by the covering Neurosurgeon, received, or attempted to obtain, the necessary information related to the patient’s CT scan … to confirm the correct side of the bleed and [sic] prior to having the consent form signed for craniotomy surgery.… The medical record indicates that the surgical consent was obtained by a Nurse Practitioner working for the Neurosurgeon who was on call. Although the surgical consent indicates that the procedure to be performed was a ’Right craniotomy and evacuation of subdural hematoma,’ the side (right) was not initially entered onto the consent form. Interview on 8/2/07 at 2:05 PM with the Director of Perioperative Surgery indicated that patient … was transported from the emergency department with an incomplete (as to side) signed surgical consent. The Circulating Nurse noted that the site of the craniotomy was not included on the signed surgical consent as required by hospital policy. She indicated that the site of the craniotomy surgery was then added by the Neurosurgeon, in the operating room, once he was questioned by the Circulating Nurse regarding the site of the surgery.» In a follow-up statement, Rhode Island Hospital wrote that the surgeon «and his assistant finished the spinal surgery, the OR was readied, and when they were in the hall, about to return to the OR, the OR nurse saw the consent form did not include the side of the surgery and told [the surgeon]. The doctor took the consent from the nurse and wrote ’right’ on it.»

6.9 «We have to operate immediately.» In a letter sent in response to fact-checking inquiries, the physician involved in this case contradicted or challenged some of the events described in this chapter. The physician wrote that the nurse in this case was not concerned that the physician was operating on the wrong side. The nurse’s concern focused on paperwork issues. The physician contended that the nurse did not question the physician’s expertise or accuracy. The nurse did not ask the physician to pull up the films, according to the physician. The physician said that he asked the nurse to find the family to see if it was possible to «redo the consent form properly,» rather than the other way around. When the family could not be found, according to the physician, the physician asked for clarification from the nurse regarding the procedure to improve the paperwork. The nurse, according to the physician, said he wasn’t sure, and as a result, the physician decided to «put a correction to the consent form and write a note in the chart detailing that we needed to proceed.» The physician said he never swore and was not excited.

Rhode Island Hospital, when asked about this account of events, said it was not accurate and referred to the August 7, 2007, RIDH Statement of Deficiencies and Plan of Correction. In a statement, the hospital wrote, «During our investigation, no one said they heard [the surgeon] say that the patient was going to die.»

«Those quotes with all the excitement and irritation in my manner, even swearing was completely inaccurate,» the physician wrote. «I was calm and professional. I showed some emotion only for a brief moment when I realized I had started on the wrong side. The critical problem was that we would not have films to look at during the procedure.… Not having films to view during the case is malpractice by the hospital; however we had no choice but to proceed without films.»

Rhode Island Hospital responded that the institution «can’t comment on [the surgeon’s] statement but would note that the hospital assumed that surgeons would put films up as they performed surgery if there was any question about the case. After this event, the hospital mandated that films would be available for the team to view.» In a second statement, the hospital wrote the surgeon «did not swear during this exchange. The nurse told [the surgeon] he had not received report from the ED and the nurse spent several minutes in the room trying to reach the correct person in the ED. The NP indicated he had received report from the ED physician. However, the CRNA (nurse anesthetist) needed to know the drugs that had been given in the ED, so the nurse was going thru the record to get her the info.»

The Rhode Island Board of Medical Licensure and Discipline, in a consent order, wrote that the physician «failed to make an accurate assessment of the location of the hematoma prior to performing the surgical evacuation.» The State Department of Health found that «an initial review of this incident reveals hospital surgical safeguards are deficient and that some systems were not followed.»

Representatives of both the Board and Department of Health declined to comment further.

6.10 the surgeon yelled In a statement, a representative of Rhode Island Hospital wrote «I believe [the surgeon] was the one who noticed that there was no bleeding—there are various versions as to what he said at that time. He asked for the films to be pulled up, confirmed the error and they proceeded to close and perform the procedure on the correct side. Except for [the surgeon’s] comments, the staff said the room was very quiet once they realized the error.»

6.11 ever working at Rhode Island Hospital again In the physician’s letter responding to fact-checking inquiries, he wrote that «no one has claimed that this mistake cost [the patient] his life. The family never claimed wrongful death, and they personally expressed their gratitude to me for saving his life on that day. The hospital and the nurse practitioner combined paid more towards a $140,000 settlement than I did.» Rhode Island Hospital, when asked about this account, declined to comment.

6.12 The book’s bland cover and daunting R. R. Nelson and S. G. Winter, An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1982).

6.13 candidates didn’t pretend to understand R. R. Nelson and S. G. Winter, «The Schumpeterian Tradeoff Revisited,» The American Economic Review 72 (1982): 114—32. Winter, in a note in response to fact-checking questions, wrote: «The ’Schumpeterian tradeoff’ (subject of a 1982 AER paper and a kindred chapter, 14, in our book) was only a facet of the project, and not a motivating one. Nelson and I were discussing a collection of issues around technological change, economic growth and firm behavior long before 1982, long before we were together at Yale, and particularly at RAND in 1966—68. Nelson went to Yale in 1968; I went to Michigan that year and joined the Yale faculty in 1976. We were ’on the trail’ of the 1982 book from 1967, and started publishing related work in 1973.… In short, while the ’Schumpeter’ influence is obviously strong in the heritage, the specific ’Schumpeterian tradeoff’ aspect is not.»

6.14 Within the world of business strategy For an overview of subsequent research, see M. C. Becker, «Organizational Routines: A Review of the Literature,» Industrial and Corporate Change 13 (2004): 643—78; Marta S. Feldman, «Organizational Routines as a Source of Continuous Change,» Organization Science 11 (2000): 611—29.

6.15 before arriving at their central conclusion Winter, in a note in response to fact-checking questions, wrote: «There was very little empirical work of my own, and even less that got published—most of that being Nelson on aspects of technological change. In the domain of firm behavior, we mostly stood on the shoulders of the giants of the Carnegie School (Simon, Cyert, and March), and relied on a wide range of other sources—technology studies, business histories, development economics, some psychologists … and Michael Polanyi, however you classify him.»

6.16 thousands of employees’ independent decisions Winter, in a note in response to fact-checking questions, clarified that such patterns that emerge from thousands of employees’ independent decisions are an aspect of routines, but routines also «get shaped from a lot of directions, one of which is deliberate managerial design. We emphasized, however, that when that happens, the actual routine that emerges, as opposed to the nominal one that was deliberately designed, is influenced, again, by a lot of choices at the individual level, as well as other considerations (see book [Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change] p. 108).»

6.17 These organizational habits—or «routines» For more on the fascinating topic of how organizational routines emerge and work, see Paul S. Adler, Barbara Goldoftas, and David I. Levine, «Flexibility Versus Efficiency? A Case Study of Model Changeovers in the Toyota Production System,» Organization Science 10 (1999): 43—67; B. E. Ashforth and Y. Fried, «The Mindlessness of Organisational Behaviors,» Human Relations 41 (1988): 305—29; Donde P. Ashmos, Dennis Duchon, and Reuben R. McDaniel, «Participation in Strategic Decision Making: The Role of Organisational Predisposition and Issue Interpretation,» Decision Sciences 29 (1998): 25—51; M. C. Becker, «The Influence of Positive and Negative Normative Feedback on the Development and Persistence of Group Routines,» doctoral thesis, Purdue University, 2001; M. C. Becker and N. Lazaric, «The Role of Routines in Organizations: An Empirical and Taxonomic Investigation,» doctoral thesis, Judge Institute of Management, University of Cambridge, 2004; Bessant, Caffyn, and Gallagher, «The Influence of Knowledge in the Replication of Routines,» Economie Appliquée LVI, 65—94; «An Evolutionary Model of Continuous Improvement Behaviour,» Technovation 21 (2001): 67—77; Tilmann Betsch, Klaus Fiedler, and Julia Brinkmann, «Behavioral Routines in Decision Making: The Effects of Novelty in Task Presentation and Time Pressure on Routine Maintenance and Deviation,» European Journal of Psychology 28 (1998): 861—78; Tilmann Betsch et al., «When Prior Knowledge Overrules New Evidence: Adaptive Use of Decision Strategies and Role Behavioral Routines,» Swiss Journal of Psychology 58 (1999): 151—60; Tilmann Betsch et al., «The Effects of Routine Strength on Adaptation and Information Search in Recurrent Decision Making,» Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes 84 (2001): 23—53; J. Burns, «The Dynamics of Accounting Change: Interplay Between New Practices, Routines, Institutions, Power, and Politics,» Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal 13 (2000): 566—86; M. D. Cohen, «Individual Learning and Organisational Routine: Emerging Connections,» Organisation Science 2 (1991): 135—39; M. Cohen and P. Bacdayan, «Organisational Routines Are Stored as Procedural Memory: Evidence from a Laboratory Study,» Organisation Science 5 (1994): 554—68; M. D. Cohen et al., «Routines and Other Recurring Action Patterns of Organisations: Contemporary Research Issues,» Industrial and Corporate Change 5 (1996): 653—98; B. Coriat, «Variety, Routines, and Networks: The Metamorphosis of Fordist Firms,» Industrial and Corporate Change 4 (1995): 205—27; B. Coriat and G. Dosi, «Learning How to Govern and Learning How to Solve Problems: On the Co-evolution of Competences, Conflicts, and Organisational Routines,» in The Role of Technology, Strategy, Organisation, and Regions, ed. A. 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Swaminathan, «Racing and Back-pedalling into the Future: New Product Introduction and Organisational Mortality in the US Bicycle Industry, 1880—1918,» Organisation Studies 21 (2000): 405—31; A. C. Edmondson, R. M. Bohmer, and G. P. Pisano, «Disrupted Routines: Team Learning and New Technology Implementation in Hospitals,» Administrative Science Quarterly 46 (2001): 685—716; M. Egidi, «Routines, Hierarchies of Problems, Procedural Behaviour: Some Evidence from Experiments,» in The Rational Foundations of Economic Behaviour, ed. K. Arrow et al. (London: Macmillan, 1996), 303—33; M. S. Feldman, «Organisational Routines as a Source of Continuous Change,» Organisation Science 11 (2000): 611—29; Marta S. Feldman, «A Performative Perspective on Stability and Change in Organizational Routines,» Industrial and Corporate Change 12 (2003): 727—52; Marta S. Feldman and B. T. Pentland, «Reconceptualizing Organizational Routines as a Source of Flexibility and Change,» Administrative Science Quarterly 48 (2003): 94—118; Marta S. Feldman and A. Rafaeli, «Organisational Routines as Sources of Connections and Understandings,» Journal of Management Studies 39 (2002): 309—31; A. Garapin and A. Hollard, «Routines and Incentives in Group Tasks,» Journal of Evolutionary Economics 9 (1999): 465—86; C. J. Gersick and J. R. Hackman, «Habitual Routines in Task-Performing Groups,» Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes 47 (1990): 65—97; R. Grant, «Toward a Knowledge-Based Theory of the Firm,» Strategic Management Journal 17 (1996): 109—22; R. Heiner, «The Origin of Predictable Behaviour,» American Economic Review 73 (1983): 560—95; G. M. Hodgson, «The Ubiquity of Habits and Rules,» Cambridge Journal of Economics 21 (1997): 663—84; G. M. Hodgson, «The Mystery of the Routine: The Darwinian Destiny of An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change,» Revue Économique 54 (2003): 355—84; G. M. Hodgson and T. Knudsen, «The Firm as an Interactor: Firms as Vehicles for Habits and Routines,» Journal of Evolutionary Economics 14, no. 3 (2004): 281—307; A. Inam, «Institutions, Routines, and Crises: Post-earthquake Housing Recovery in Mexico City and Los Angeles,» doctoral thesis, University of Southern California, 1997; A. Inam, «Institutions, Routines, and Crises—Post-earthquake Housing Recovery in Mexico City and Los Angeles,» Cities 16 (1999): 391—407; O. Jones and M. Craven, «Beyond the Routine: Innovation Management and the Teaching Company Scheme,» Technovation 21 (2001): 267—79; M. Kilduff, «Performance and Interaction Routines in Multinational Corporations,» Journal of International Business Studies 23 (1992): 133—45; N. Lazaric, «The Role of Routines, Rules, and Habits in Collective Learning: Some Epistemological and Ontological Considerations,» European Journal of Economic and Social Systems 14 (2000): 157—71; N. Lazaric and B. Denis, «How and Why Routines Change: Some Lessons from the Articulation of Knowledge with ISO 9002 Implementation in the Food Industry,» Economies et Sociétés 6 (2001): 585—612; B. Levitt and J. March, «Organisational Learning,» Annual Review of Sociology 14 (1988): 319—40; P. Lillrank, «The Quality of Standard, Routine, and Nonroutine Processes,» Organization Studies 24 (2003): 215—33; S. Massini et al., «The Evolution of Organizational Routines Among Large Western and Japanese Firms,» Research Policy 31 (2002): 1333—48; T. J. McKeown, «Plans and Routines, Bureaucratic Bargaining, and the Cuban Missile Crisis,» Journal of Politics 63 (2001): 1163—90; A. P. Minkler, «The Problem with Dispersed Knowledge: Firms in Theory and Practice,» Kyklos 46 (1993): 569—87; P. Morosini, S. Shane, and H. Singh, «National Cultural Distance and Cross-Border Acquisition Performance,» Journal of International Business Studies 29 (1998): 137—58; A. Narduzzo, E. Rocco, and M. Warglien, «Talking About Routines in the Field,» in The Nature and Dynamics of Organizational Capabilities, ed. G. Dosi, R. Nelson, and S. Winter (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 27—50; R. R. Nelson, «Routines,» in The Elgar Companion to Institutional and Evolutionary Economics, vol. 2, ed. G. Hodgson, W. Samuels, and M. Tool (Aldershot, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 1992), 249—53; B. T. Pentland, «Conceptualizing and Measuring Variety in the Execution of Organizational Work Processes,» Management Science 49 (2003): 857—70; B. T. Pentland and H. Rueter, «Organisational Routines as Grammars of Action,» Administrative Sciences Quarterly 39 (1994): 484—510; L. Perren and P. Grant, «The Evolution of Management Accounting Routines in Small Businesses: A Social Construction Perspective,» Management Accounting Research 11 (2000): 391—411; D. J. Phillips, «A Genealogical Approach to Organizational Life Chances: The Parent—Progeny Transfer Among Silicon Valley Law Firms, 1946—1996,» Administrative Science Quarterly 47 (2002): 474—506; S. Postrel and R. Rumelt, «Incentives, Routines, and Self-Command,» Industrial and Corporate Change 1 (1992): 397—425; P. D. Sherer, N. Rogovksy, and N. Wright, «What Drives Employment Relations in Taxicab Organisations?» Organisation Science 9 (1998): 34—48; H. A. Simon, «Programs as Factors of Production,» Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Winter Meeting, 1966, Industrial Relations Research Association, 1967, 178—88; L. A. Suchman, «Office Procedure as Practical Action: Models of Work and System Design,» ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems 1 (1983): 320—28; G. Szulanski, «Appropriability and the Challenge of Scope: Banc One Routinizes Replication,» in Nature and Dynamics of Organisational Capabilities, ed. G. Dosi, R. R. Nelson, and S. G. Winter (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 69—97; D. Tranfield and S. Smith, «The Strategic Regeneration of Manufacturing by Changing Routines,» International Journal of Operations and Production Management 18 (1998): 114—29; Karl E. Weick, «The Vulnerable System: An Analysis of the Tenerife Air Disaster,» Journal of Management 16 (1990): 571—93; Karl E. Weick, «The Collapse of Sensemaking in Organizations: The Mann—Gulch Disaster,» Administrative Science Quarterly 38 (1993): 628—52; H. M. Weiss and D. R. Ilgen, «Routinized Behaviour in Organisations,» Journal of Behavioral Economics 14 (1985): 57—67; S. G. Winter, «Economic ’Natural Selection’ and the Theory of the Firm,» Yale Economic Essays 4 (1964): 225—72; S. G. Winter, «Optimization and Evolution in the Theory of the Firm,» in Adaptive Economic Models, ed. R. Day and T. Groves (New York: Academic Press, 1975), 73—118; S. G. Winter and G. Szulanski, «Replication as Strategy,» Organization Science 12 (2001): 730—43; S. G. Winter and G. Szulanski, «Replication of Organisational Routines: Conceptualizing the Exploitation of Knowledge Assets,» in The Strategic Management of Intellectual Capital and Organisational Knowledge: A Collection of Readings, ed. N. Bontis and C. W. Choo (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 207—21; M. Zollo, J. Reuer, and H. Singh, «Interorganizational Routines and Performance in Strategic Alliances,» Organization Science 13 (2002): 701—13.

6.18 hundreds of unwritten rules Esbjoern Segelod, «The Content and Role of the Investment Manual: A Research Note,» Management Accounting Research 8, no. 2 (1997): 221—31; Anne Marie Knott and Bill McKelvey, «Nirvana Efficiency: A Comparative Test of Residual Claims and Routines,» Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 38 (1999): 365—83; J. H. Gittell, «Coordinating Mechanisms in Care Provider Groups: Relational Coordination as a Mediator and Input Uncertainty as a Moderator of Performance Effects,» Management Science 48 (2002): 1408—26; A. M. Knott and Hart Posen, «Firm R&D Behavior and Evolving Technology in Established Industries,» Organization Science 20 (2009): 352—67.

6.19 companies need to operate G. M. Hodgson, Economics and Evolution (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993); Richard N. Langlois, «Transaction-Cost Economics in Real Time,» Industrial and Corporate Change (1992): 99—127; R. R. Nelson, «Routines»; R. Coombs and J. S. Metcalfe, «Organizing for Innovation: Co-ordinating Distributed Innovation Capabilities,» in Competence, Governance, and Entrepreneurship, ed. J. N. Foss and V. Mahnke (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); R. Amit and M. Belcourt, «HRM Processes: A Value-Creating Source of Competitive Advantage,» European Management Journal 17 (1999): 174—81.

6.20 They provide a kind of «organizational memory» G. Dosi, D. Teece, and S. G. Winter, «Toward a Theory of Corporate Coherence: Preliminary Remarks,» in Technology and Enterprise in a Historical Perspective, ed. G. Dosi, R. Giannetti, and P. A. Toninelli (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 185—211; S. G. Winter, Y. M. Kaniovski, and G. Dosi, «A Baseline Model of Industry Evolution,» Journal of Evolutionary Economics 13, no. 4 (2003): 355—83; B. Levitt and J. G. March, «Organizational Learning,» Annual Review of Sociology 14 (1988): 319—40; D. Teece and G. Pisano, «The Dynamic Capabilities of Firms: An Introduction,» Industrial and Corporate Change 3 (1994): 537—56; G. M. Hodgson, «The Approach of Institutional Economics,» Journal of Economic Literature 36 (1998): 166—92; Phillips, «Genealogical Approach to Organizational Life Chances»; M. Zollo, J. Reuer, and H. Singh, «Interorganizational Routines and Performance in Strategic Alliances,» Organization Science 13 (2002): 701—13; P. Lillrank, «The Quality of Standard, Routine, and Nonroutine Processes,» Organization Studies 24 (2003): 215—33.

6.21 Routines reduce uncertainty M. C. Becker, «Organizational Routines: A Review of the Literature,» Industrial and Corporate Change 13, no. 4 (2004): 643—78.

6.22 But among the most important benefits B. Coriat and G. Dosi, «Learning How to Govern and Learning How to Solve Problems: On the Co-evolution of Competences, Conflicts, and Organisational Routines,» in The Role of Technology, Strategy, Organisation, and Regions, ed. A. D. J. Chandler, P. Hadstroem, and O. Soelvell (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998); C. I. Barnard, The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1938); P. A. Mangolte, «La dynamique des connaissances tacites et articulées: une approche socio-cognitive,» Economie Appliquée 50, no. 2 (1997): 105—34; P. A. Mangolte, «Le concept de ’routine organisationelle’ entre cognition et institution,» doctoral thesis, Université Paris-Nord, U.F.R. de Sciences Economiques et de Gestion, Centre de Recherche en Economie Industrielle, 1997; P. A. Mangolte, «Organisational Learning and the Organisational Link: The Problem of Conflict, Political Equilibrium and Truce,» European Journal of Economic and Social Systems 14 (2000): 173—90; N. Lazaric and P. A. Mangolte, «Routines et mémoire organisationelle: un questionnement critique de la perspective cognitiviste,» Revue Internationale de Systémique 12 (1998): 27—49; N. Lazaric and B. Denis, «How and Why Routines Change: Some Lessons from the Articulation of Knowledge with ISO 9002 Implementation in the Food Industry,» Economies et Sociétés 6 (2001): 585—612; N. Lazaric, P. A. Mangolte, and M. L. Massué, «Articulation and Codification of Know-How in the Steel Industry: Some Evidence from Blast Furnace Control in France,» Research Policy 32 (2003): 1829—47; J. Burns, «The Dynamics of Accounting Change: Interplay Between New Practices, Routines, Institutions, Power, and Politics,» Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal 13 (2000): 566—86.

6.23 you’ll probably get taken care of over time Winter, in a note in response to fact-checking questions, wrote: «The ’routine as truce’ formulation has turned out to have particularly long legs, and I think that is because anybody with some experience in working inside an organization quickly recognizes it as a convenient label for the sorts of goings-on that they are very familiar with.… But some of your example about the salesperson evokes issues of trust, cooperation, and organizational culture that go beyond the scope of ’routine as truce.’ Those are subtle issues, which can be illuminated from a variety of directions. The ’routine as truce’ idea is a lot more specific than related ideas about ’culture.’ It says, ’If you, Mr. or Ms. Manager, VISIBLY DEFECT from a widely shared understanding of ’how we do things around here,’ you are going to encounter strong resistance, fueled by levels of suspicion about your motives that are far beyond anything you might reasonably expect. And if these responses are not entirely independent of the quality of the arguments you advance, they will be so nearly independent that you will find it hard to see any difference.’ So, for example, suppose we take your ’red this year’ example down the road a bit, into the implementation phase, where enormous effort has gone into making sure that the red on the sweater is the same on the catalog cover and on catalog p. 17 and both of those match what is in the CEO’s head, and that red is also the same one produced in response to contracts with suppliers in Malaysia, Thailand, and Guatemala. That stuff is at the other end of the routines spectrum from the decision on ’red’; people are engaged in complex coordinated behavior—it is more like the semiconductor case. People in the organization think they know what they are doing (because they did more or less the same with the green pullovers featured last year), and they are working like hell to do it, more or less on time. This is guts management stuff, and it is very hard work, thanks partly, in this case, to the (alleged) fact that the human eye can distinguish 7 million different colors. Into that, YOU, Mr. or Ms. Manager, come in and say ’Sorry, it’s a mistake, it should be purple. I know we are well down the road with our commitment to red, but hear me out, because … ’ If you have lined up strong allies in the organization who also favor a belated switch to purple, you have just touched off another battle in the ’civil war,’ with uncertain consequence. If you don’t have such allies, your espoused cause and you are both dead in the organization, in short order. And it doesn’t matter what logic and evidence you offer following your ’because.’ »

6.24 of throwing a rival overboard» Nelson and Winter, Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, 110.

6.25 But that’s not enough Rik Wenting, «Spinoff Dynamics and the Spatial Formation of the Fashion Design Industry, 1858—2005,» Journal of Economic Geography 8, no. 5 (2008): 593—614. Wenting, in a response to fact-checking questions, wrote: «Nelson and Winter speak of organisational routines as repetitive collective actions which determine firm behaviour and performance. Notably they argue that routines are hard to codify and part of company culture, and as such are hard to change. Also, routines are a major reason why firms differ in their performance and the continued difference over time between firms. The literature started by Steven Klepper interpreted this aspect of routines as part of the reason why spinoffs are in performance similar to their parents. I use this same reasoning in the fashion design industry: fashion design entrepreneurs form to a large extent their new firm’s blueprint based on the organisational routines learned at their former employer. In my PhD research, I found evidence that from the start of the haute couture industry (1858 Paris), spinoff designer firms (whether located in NY, Paris, Milan or London, etc.) do indeed have a similar performance as their motherfirms.»

6.26 and found the right alliances Details regarding truces—as opposed to routines—within the fashion industry draw on interviews with designers themselves. Wenting, in a response to fact-checking questions, wrote: «Note that I do not speak of truces between entrepreneur and former employer. This is an extension of the organisational routines literature I did not specifically explore. However, in my research on the ’inheritage’ effect between motherfirm and spinoff, the role of ’reputation’ and ’social network’ are often times mentioned by designers in how they experience advantages of their mother company.»

6.27 Philip Brickell, a forty-three-year-old Rodney Cowton and Tony Dawe, «Inquiry Praises PC Who Helped to Fight King’s Cross Blaze,» The Times, February 5, 1988.

6.28 at the bottom of a nearby escalator Details on this incident come from a variety of sources, including interviews, as well as D. Fennell, Investigation into the King’s Cross Underground Fire (Norwich, U.K.: Stationery Office Books, 1988); P. Chambers, Body 115: The Story of the Last Victim of the King’s Cross Fire (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2006); K. Moodie, «The King’s Cross Fire: Damage Assessment and Overview of the Technical Investigation,» Fire Safety Journal 18 (1992): 13—33; A. F. Roberts, «The King’s Cross Fire: A Correlation of the Eyewitness Accounts and Results of the Scientific Investigation,» Fire Safety Journal, 1992; «Insight: Kings Cross,» The Sunday Times, November 22, 1987; «Relatives Angry Over Tube Inquest; King’s Cross Fire,» The Times, October 5, 1988.

6.29 if they aren’t designed just right In the Fennell report, the investigator was ambiguous about how much of the tragedy could have been averted if the burning tissue had been reported. The Fennell report is deliberately agnostic about this point: «It will remain a matter of conjecture what would have happened if the London Fire Brigade had been summoned to deal with the burning tissue.… It is a matter of speculation what course things would have taken if he had followed the new procedure and called the London Fire Brigade immediately.»

6.30 «Why didn’t someone take charge?» «Answers That Must Surface—The King’s Cross Fire Is Over but the Controversy Continues,» The Times, December 2, 1987; «Businessman Praised for Rescuing Two from Blazing Station Stairwell; King’s Cross Fire Inquest,» The Times, October 6, 1998.

6.31 responsibility for passengers’ safety In a statement in response to fact-checking questions, a spokesman for London Underground and Rail wrote: «London Underground has given this careful consideration and will not, on this occasion, be able to provide further comment or assistance on this. LU’s response to the King’s Cross fire and the organisational changes made to address the issues are well-documented, and the sequence of events leading to the fire is covered in great detail in Mr Fennell’s report, so LU does not consider it necessary to add more comment to the already large body of work on the matter. I appreciate this is not the response you were hoping for.»

6.32 the hospital was fined another $450,000 Felice Freyer, «Another Wrong-Site Surgery at R.I. Hospital,» The Providence Journal, October 28, 2009; «Investigators Probing 5th Wrong-Site Surgery at Rhode Island Hospital Since 2007,» Associated Press, October 23, 2009; «R.I. Hospital Fined $150,000 in 5th Wrong-Site Surgery Since 2007, Video Cameras to Be Installed,» Associated Press, November 2, 2009; Letter to Rhode Island Hospital from Rhode Island Department of Health, November 2, 2009; Letter to Rhode Island Hospital from Rhode Island Department of Health, October 26, 2010; Letter to Rhode Island Hospital from Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, October 25, 2010.

6.33 «The problem’s not going away,» « ’The Problem’s Not Going Away’: Mistakes Lead to Wrong-Side Brain Surgeries at R.I. Hospital,» Associated Press, December 15, 2007.

6.34 «everything was out of control.» In a statement, a Rhode Island Hospital spokeswoman wrote: «I never heard of any reporter ’ambushing’ a doctor—and never saw any such incident on any of the news stations. While I can’t comment on individual perceptions, the quote implies a media frenzy, which did not happen. While the incidents received national attention, none of the national media came to Rhode Island.»

6.35 a sense of crisis emerged In a statement, a Rhode Island Hospital spokeswoman wrote: «I would not describe the atmosphere as being one of crisis—it was more accurately one of demoralization among many. Many people felt beleaguered.»

6.36 to make sure time-outs occurred The cameras were installed as part of a consent order with the state’s department of health.

6.37 A computerized system Rhode Island Hospital Surgical Safety Backgrounder, provided by hospital administrators. More information on Rhode Island Hospital’s safety initiatives is available at http://rhodeislandhospital.org.

6.38 But once a sense of crisis gripped For more on how crises can create an atmosphere where change is possible in medicine, and how wrong-site surgeries occur, see Douglas McCarthy and David Blumenthal, «Stories from the Sharp End: Case Studies in Safety Improvement,» Milbank Quarterly 84 (2006): 165—200; J. W. Senders et al., «The Egocentric Surgeon or the Roots of Wrong Side Surgery,» Quality and Safety in Health Care 17 (2008): 396—400; Mary R. Kwaan et al., «Incidence, Patterns, and Prevention of Wrong-Site Surgery,» Archives of Surgery 141, no. 4 (April 2006): 353—57.

6.39 Other hospitals have made similar For a discussion on this topic, see McCarthy and Blumenthal, «Stories from the Sharp End»; Atul Gawande, Better: A Surgeon’s Notes on Performance (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2008); Atul Gawande, The Checklist Manifesto: How to Get Things Right (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2009).

6.40 In the wake of that tragedy NASA, «Report to the President: Actions to Implement the Recommendations of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident,» July 14, 1986; Matthew W. Seeger, «The Challenger Tragedy and Search for Legitimacy,» Communication Studies 37, no. 3 (1986): 147—57; John Noble Wilford, «New NASA System Aims to Encourage Blowing the Whistle,» The New York Times, June 5, 1987; Joseph Lorenzo Hall, «Columbia and Challenger: Organizational Failure at NASA,» Space Policy 19, no. 4 (November 2003), 239—47; Barbara Romzek and Melvin Dubnick, «Accountability in the Public Sector: Lessons from the Challenger Tragedy,» Public Administration Review 47, no. 3 (May—June 1987): 227—38.

6.41 Then, a runway error Karl E. Weick, «The Vulnerable System: An Analysis of the Tenerife Air Disaster,» Journal of Management 16, no. 3 (1990): 571—93; William Evan and Mark Manion, Minding the Machines: Preventing Technological Disasters (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall Professional, 2002); Raimo P. Hämäläinen and Esa Saarinen, Systems Intelligence: Discovering a Hidden Competence in Human Action and Organizational Life (Helsinki: Helsinki University of Technology, 2004).

CHAPTER SEVEN

7.1 grab an extra box The details on subconscious tactics retailers use comes from Jeremy Caplan, «Supermarket Science,» Time, May 24, 2007; Paco Underhill, Why We Buy: The Science of Shopping (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000); Jack Hitt; «The Theory of Supermarkets,» The New York Times, March 10, 1996; «The Science of Shopping: The Way the Brain Buys,» The Economist, December 20, 2008; «Understanding the Science of Shopping,» Talk of the Nation, National Public Radio, December 12, 2008; Malcolm Gladwell, «The Science of Shopping,» The New Yorker, November 4, 1996.

7.2 to buy almost anything There are literally thousands of studies that have scrutinized how habits influence consumer behaviors—and how unconscious and semi-conscious urges influence decisions that might otherwise seem immune from habitual triggers. For more on these fascinating topics, see H. Aarts, A. van Knippenberg, and B. Verplanken, «Habit and Information Use in Travel Mode Choices,» Acta Psychologica 96, nos. 1—2 (1997): 1—14; J. A. Bargh, «The Four Horsemen of Automaticity: Awareness, Efficiency, Intention, and Control in Social Cognition,» in Handbook of Social Cognition, ed. R. S. Wyer, Jr., and T. K. Srull (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1994); D. Bell, T. Ho, and C. Tang, «Determining Where to Shop: Fixed and Variable Costs of Shopping,» Journal of Marketing Research 35, no. 3 (1998): 352—69; T. Betsch, S. Haberstroh, B. Molter, A. Glöckner, «Oops, I Did It Again—Relapse Errors in Routinized Decision Making,» Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 93, no. 1 (2004): 62—74; M. Cunha, C. Janiszewski, Jr., and J. Laran, «Protection of Prior Learning in Complex Consumer Learning Environments,» Journal of Consumer Research 34, no. 6 (2008): 850—64; H. Aarts, U. Danner, and N. de Vries, «Habit Formation and Multiple Means to Goal Attainment: Repeated Retrieval of Target Means Causes Inhibited Access to Competitors,» Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33, no. 10 (2007): 1367—79; E. Ferguson and P. Bibby, «Predicting Future Blood Donor Returns: Past Behavior, Intentions, and Observer Effects,» Health Psychology 21, no. 5 (2002): 513—18; Edward Fox and John Semple, «Understanding ’Cherry Pickers’: How Retail Customers Split Their Shopping Baskets,» unpublished manuscript, Southern Methodist University, 2002; S. Gopinath, R. Blattberg, and E. Malthouse, «Are Revived Customers as Good as New?» unpublished manuscript, Northwestern University, 2002; H. Aarts, R. Holland, and D. Langendam, «Breaking and Creating Habits on the Working Floor: A Field-Experiment on the Power of Implementation Intentions,» Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42, no. 6 (2006): 776—83; Mindy Ji and Wendy Wood, «Purchase and Consumption Habits: Not Necessarily What You Intend,» Journal of Consumer Psychology 17, no. 4 (2007): 261—76; S. Bellman, E. J. Johnson, and G. Lohse, «Cognitive Lock-In and the Power Law of Practice,» Journal of Marketing 67, no. 2 (2003): 62—75; J. Bettman et al., «Adapting to Time Constraints,» in Time Pressure and Stressing Human Judgment and Decision Making, ed. O. Svenson and J. Maule (New York: Springer, 1993); Adwait Khare and J. Inman, «Habitual Behavior in American Eating Patterns: The Role of Meal Occasions,» Journal of Consumer Research 32, no. 4 (2006): 567—75; David Bell and R. Lal, «The Impact of Frequent Shopper Programs in Grocery Retailing,» Quantitative Marketing and Economics 1, no. 2 (2002): 179—202; Yuping Liu, «The Long-Term Impact of Loyalty Programs on Consumer Purchase Behavior and Loyalty,» Journal of Marketing 71, no. 4 (2007): 19—35; Neale Martin, Habit: The 95% of Behavior Marketers Ignore (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: FT Press, 2008); H. Aarts, K. Fujia, and K. C. McCulloch, «Inhibition in Goal Systems: A Retrieval-Induced Forgetting Account,» Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44, no. 3 (2008): 614—23; Gerald Häubl and K. B. Murray, «Explaining Cognitive Lock-In: The Role of Skill-Based Habits of Use in Consumer Choice,» Journal of Consumer Research 34 (2007) 77—88; D. Neale, J. Quinn, and W. Wood, «Habits: A Repeat Performance,» Current Directions in Psychological Science 15, no. 4 (2006) 198—202; R. L. Oliver, «Whence Consumer Loyalty?» Journal of Marketing 63 (1999): 33—44; C. T. Orleans, «Promoting the Maintenance of Health Behavior Change: Recommendations for the Next Generation of Research and Practice,» Health Psychology 19 (2000): 76—83; Andy Ouellette and Wendy Wood, «Habit and Intention in Everyday Life: The Multiple Processes by Which Past Behavior Predicts Future Behavior,» Psychological Bulletin 124, no. 1 (1998) 54—74; E. Iyer, D. Smith, and C. Park, «The Effects of Situational Factors on In-Store Grocery Shopping Behavior: The Role of Store Environment and Time Available for Shopping,» Journal of Consumer Research 15, no. 4 (1989): 422—33; O. Amir, R. Dhar, and A. Pocheptsova, «Deciding Without Resources: Resource Depletion and Choice in Context,» Journal of Marketing Research 46, no. 3 (2009): 344—55; H. Aarts, R. Custers, and P. Sheeran, «The Goal-Dependent Automaticity of Drinking Habits,» British Journal of Social Psychology 44, no. 1 (2005): 47—63; S. Orbell and P. Sheeran, «Implementation Intentions and Repeated Behavior: Augmenting the Predictive Validity of the Theory of Planned Behavior,» European Journal of Social Psychology 29, nos. 2—3 (1999): 349—69; P. Sheeran, P. Gollwitzer, and P. Webb, «The Interplay Between Goal Intentions and Implementation Intentions,» Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31, no. 1 (2005): 87—98; H. Shen and R. S. Wyer, «Procedural Priming and Consumer Judgments: Effects on the Impact of Positively and Negatively Valenced Information,» Journal of Consumer Research 34, no. 5 (2007): 727—37; Itamar Simonson, «The Effect of Purchase Quantity and Timing on Variety-Seeking Behavior,» Journal of Marketing Research 27, no. 2 (1990): 150—62; G. Taylor and S. Neslin, «The Current and Future Sales Impact of a Retail Frequency Reward Program,» Journal of Retailing 81, no. 4, 293—305; H. Aarts and B. Verplanken, «Habit, Attitude, and Planned Behavior: Is Habit an Empty Construct or an Interesting Case of Goal-Directed Automaticity?» European Review of Social Psychology 10 (1999): 101—34; B. Verplanken, Henk Aarts, and Ad Van Knippenberg, «Habit, Information Acquisition, and the Process of Making Travel Mode Choices,» European Journal of Social Psychology 27, no. 5 (1997): 539—60; B. Verplanken et al., «Attitude Versus General Habit: Antecedents of Travel Mode Choice,» Journal of Applied Social Psychology 24, no. 4 (1994): 285—300; B. Verplanken et al., «Consumer Style and Health: The Role of Impulsive Buying in Unhealthy Eating,» Psychology and Health 20, no. 4 (2005): 429—41; B. Verplanken et al., «Context Change and Travel Mode Choice: Combining the Habit Discontinuity and Self-Activation Hypotheses,» Journal of Environmental Psychology 28 (2008): 121—27; Bas Verplanken and Wendy Wood, «Interventions to Break and Create Consumer Habits,» Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 25, no. 1 (2006): 90—103; H. Evanschitzky, B. Ramaseshan, and V. Vogel, «Customer Equity Drivers and Future Sales,» Journal of Marketing 72 (2008): 98—108; P. Sheeran and T. L. Webb, «Does Changing Behavioral Intentions Engender Behavioral Change? A Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence,» Psychological Bulletin 132, no. 2 (2006): 249—68; P. Sheeran, T. L. Webb, and A. Luszczynska, «Planning to Break Unwanted Habits: Habit Strength Moderates Implementation Intention Effects on Behavior Change,» British Journal of Social Psychology 48, no. 3 (2009): 507—23; D. Wegner and R. Wenzlaff, «Thought Suppression,» Annual Review of Psychology 51 (2000): 59—91; L. Lwin, A. Mattila, and J. Wirtz, «How Effective Are Loyalty Reward Programs in Driving Share of Wallet?» Journal of Service Research 9, no. 4 (2007): 327—34; D. Kashy, J. Quinn, and W. Wood, «Habits in Everyday Life: Thought, Emotion, and Action,» Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83, no. 6 (2002): 1281—97; L. Tam, M. Witt, and W. Wood (2005), «Changing Circumstances, Disrupting Habits,» Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88, no. 6 (2005): 918—33; Alison Jing Xu and Robert S. Wyer, «The Effect of Mind-sets on Consumer Decision Strategies,» Journal of Consumer Research 34, no. 4 (2007): 556—66; C. Cole, M. Lee, and C. Yoon, «Consumer Decision Making and Aging: Current Knowledge and Future Directions,» Journal of Consumer Psychology 19 (2009): 2—16; S. Dhar, A. Krishna, and Z. Zhang, «The Optimal Choice of Promotional Vehicles: Front-Loaded or Rear-Loaded Incentives?» Management Science 46, no. 3 (2000): 348—62.

7.3 «potato chips are on sale!» C. Park, E. Iyer, and D. Smith, «The Effects of Situational Factors on In-Store Grocery Shopping Behavior: The Role of Store Environment and Time Available for Shopping,» The Journal of Consumer Research 15, no. 4 (1989): 422—33. For more on this topic, see J. Belyavsky Bayuk, C. Janiszewski, and R. Leboeuf, «Letting Good Opportunities Pass Us By: Examining the Role of Mind-set During Goal Pursuit,» Journal of Consumer Research 37, no. 4 (2010): 570—83; Ab Litt and Zakary L. Tormala, «Fragile Enhancement of Attitudes and Intentions Following Difficult Decisions,» Journal of Consumer Research 37, no. 4 (2010): 584—98.

7.4 University of Southern California D. Neal and W. Wood, «The Habitual Consumer,» Journal of Consumer Psychology 19, no. 4 (2009): 579—92. For more on similar research, see R. Fazio and M. Zanna, «Direct Experience and Attitude—Behavior Consistency,» in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. L. Berkowitz (New York: Academic Press, 2005); R. Abelson and R. Schank, «Knowledge and Memory: The Real Story,» in Knowledge and Memory: The Real Story, ed. R. S. Wyer, Jr. (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2004); Nobert Schwarz, «Meta-Cognitive Experiences in Consumer Judgment and Decision Making,» Journal of Consumer Psychology 14, no. 4 (September 2004): 332—48; R. Wyer and A. Xu, «The Role of Behavioral Mindsets in Goal-Directed Activity: Conceptual Underpinnings and Empirical Evidence,» Journal of Consumer Psychology 20, no. 2 (2010): 107—25.

7.5 news or deals on cigarettes Julia Angwin and Steve Stecklow, « ’Scrapers’ Dig Deep for Data on Web,» The Wall Street Journal, October 12, 2010; Mark Maremont and Leslie Scism, «Insurers Test Data Profiles to Identify Risky Clients,» The Wall Street Journal, November 19, 2010; Paul Sonne and Steve Stecklow, «Shunned Profiling Technology on the Verge of Comeback,» The Wall Street Journal, November 24, 2010.

7.6 Pole flashed a slide This slide is from a keynote speech by Pole at Predicted Analytics World, New York, October 20, 2009. It is no longer available online. Additionally, see Andrew Pole, «Challenges of Incremental Sales Modeling in Direct Marketing.»

7.7 buying different brands of beer It’s difficult to make specific correlations between types of life changes and specific products. So, while we know that people who move or get divorced will change their buying patterns, we don’t know that divorce always influences beer, or that a new home always influences cereal purchases. But the general trend holds. Alan Andreasen, «Life Status Changes and Changes in Consumer Preferences and Satisfaction,» Journal of Consumer Research 11, no. 3 (1984): 784—94. For more on this topic, see E. Lee, A. Mathur, and G. Moschis, «A Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Life Status Changes on Changes in Consumer Preferences,» Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 36, no. 2 (2007): 234—46; L. Euehun, A. Mathur, and G. Moschis, «Life Events and Brand Preferences Changes,» Journal of Consumer Behavior 3, no. 2 (2003): 129—41.

7.8 and they care quite a bit For more on the fascinating topic of how particular moments offer opportunities for marketers (or government agencies, health activists, or anyone else, for that matter) to influence habits, see Bas Verplanken and Wendy Wood, «Interventions to Break and Create Consumer Habits,» Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 25, no. 1 (2006): 90—103; D. Albarracin, A. Earl, and J. C. Gillette, «A Test of Major Assumptions About Behavior Change: A Comprehensive Look at the Effects of Passive and Active HIV-Prevention Interventions Since the Beginning of the Epidemic,» Psychological Bulletin 131, no. 6 (2005): 856—97; T. Betsch, J. Brinkmann, and K. Fiedler, «Behavioral Routines in Decision Making: The Effects of Novelty in Task Presentation and Time Pressure on Routine Maintenance and Deviation,» European Journal of Social Psychology 28, no. 6 (1998): 861—78; L. Breslow, «Social Ecological Strategies for Promoting Healthy Lifestyles,» American Journal of Health Promotion 10, no. 4 (1996), 253—57; H. Buddelmeyer and R. Wilkins, «The Effects of Smoking Ban Regulations on Individual Smoking Rates,» Melbourne Institute Working Paper Series no. 1737, Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research, University of Melbourne, 2005; P. Butterfield, «Thinking Upstream: Nurturing a Conceptual Understanding of the Societal Context of Health Behavior,» Advances in Nursing Science 12, no. 2 (1990): 1—8; J. Derzon and M. Lipsey, «A Meta-Analysis of the Effectiveness of Mass Communication for Changing Substance-Use Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior,» in Mass Media and Drug Prevention: Classic and Contemporary Theories and Research, ed. W. D. Crano and M. Burgoon (East Sussex, U.K.: Psychology, 2001); R. Fazio, J. Ledbetter, and T. Ledbetter, «On the Costs of Accessible Attitudes: Detecting That the Attitude Object Has Changed,» Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78, no. 2 (2000): 197—210; S. Fox et al., «Competitive Food Initiatives in Schools and Overweight in Children: A Review of the Evidence,» Wisconsin Medical Journal 104, no. 8 (2005): 38—43; S. Fujii, T. Gärling, and R. Kitamura, «Changes in Drivers’ Perceptions and Use of Public Transport During a Freeway Closure: Effects of Temporary Structural Change on Cooperation in a Real-Life Social Dilemma,» Environment and Behavior 33, no. 6 (2001): 796—808; T. Heatherton and P. Nichols, «Personal Accounts of Successful Versus Failed Attempts at Life Change,» Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20, no. 6 (1994): 664—75; J. Hill and H. R. Wyatt, «Obesity and the Environment: Where Do We Go from Here?» Science 299, no. 5608 (2003): 853—55; P. Johnson, R. Kane, and R. Town, «A Structured Review of the Effect of Economic Incentives on Consumers’ Preventive Behavior,» American Journal of Preventive Medicine 27, no. 4 (2004): 327—52; J. Fulkerson, M. Kubrik, and L. Lytle, «Fruits, Vegetables, and Football: Findings from Focus Groups with Alternative High School Students Regarding Eating and Physical Activity,» Journal of Adolescent Health 36, no. 6 (2005): 494—500; M. Abraham, S. Kalmenson, and L. Lodish, «How T.V. Advertising Works: A Meta-Analysis of 389 Real World Split Cable T.V. Advertising Experiments,» Journal of Marketing Research 32, no. 5 (1995): 125—39; J. McKinlay, «A Case for Re-Focusing Upstream: The Political Economy of Illness,» in Applying Behavioral Science to Cardiovascular Risk, ed. A. J. Enelow and J. B. Henderson (New York: American Heart Association, 1975); N. Milio, «A Framework for Prevention: Changing Health-Damaging to Health-Generating Life Patterns,» American Journal of Public Health 66, no. 5 (1976): 435—39; S. Orbell, «Intention-Behavior Relations: A Self-Regulatory Perspective,» in Contemporary Perspectives on the Psychology of Attitudes, ed. G. Haddock and G. Maio (New York: Psychology Press, 2004); C. T. Orleans, «Promoting the Maintenance of Health Behavior Change: Recommendations for the Next Generation of Research and Practice,» Health Psychology 19, no. 1 (2000): 76—83; C. G. DiClemente, J. C. Norcross, and J. Prochaska, «In Search of How People Change: Applications to Addictive Behaviors,» American Psychologist 47, no. 9 (1992): 1102—14; J. Quinn and W. Wood, «Inhibiting Habits and Temptations: Depends on Motivational Orientation,» 2006 manuscript under editorial review; T. Mainieri, S. Oskamp, and P. Schultz, «Who Recycles and When? A Review of Personal and Structural Factors,» Journal of Environmental Psychology 15, no. 2 (1995): 105—21; C. D. Jenkins, C. T. Orleans, and T. W. Smith, «Prevention and Health Promotion: Decades of Progress, New Challenges, and an Emerging Agenda,» Health Psychology 23, no. 2 (2004): 126—31; H. C. Triandis, «Values, Attitudes, and Interpersonal Behavior,» Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 27 (1980): 195—259.

7.9 before a child’s first birthday «Parents Spend £5,000 on Newborn Baby Before Its First Birthday,» Daily Mail, September 20, 2010.

7.10 $36.3 billion a year Brooks Barnes, «Disney Looking into Cradle for Customers,» The New York Times, February 6, 2011.

7.11 Jenny Ward, a twenty-three-year-old The names in this paragraph are pseudonyms, used to illustrate the types of customers Target’s models can detect. These are not real shoppers.

7.12 profile their buying habits «McDonald’s, CBS, Mazda, and Microsoft Sued for ’History Sniffing,’ » Forbes.com January 3, 2011.

7.13 ferret out their mailing addresses Terry Baynes, «California Ruling Sets Off More Credit Card Suits,» Reuters, February 16, 2011.

7.14 forecasted if a tune was likely to succeed A. Elberse, J. Eliashbert, and J. Villanueva, «Polyphonic HMI: Mixing Music with Math,» Harvard Business Review, August 24, 2005.

7.15 thirty-seven times throughout the month My thanks to Adam Foster, director of data services, Nielsen BDS.

7.16 Listeners didn’t just dislike «Hey Ya!» My thanks to Paul Heine, now of Inside Radio; Paul Heine, «Fine-tuning People Meter,» Billboard, November 6, 2004; Paul Heine, «Mscore Data Shows Varying Relationship with Airplay,» Billboard, April 3, 2010.

7.17 make «Hey Ya!» into a hit In fact-checking communications, Steve Bartels, the Arista promotions executive, emphasized that he saw the fact that «Hey Ya!» was polarizing as a good thing. The song was released and promoted with another tune—«The Way You Move»—that was the other big single from OutKast’s two-disc release Speakerboxxx/The Love Below. «You want there to be a reaction,» Bartels told me. «Some of the smarter [program directors] looked at the polarization as an opportunity to give the station an identity. The fact that there was a quick turn-off reaction, to me, doesn’t mean we’re not succeeding. It’s my job to convince PDs that’s why they should look at this song.»

7.18 they stayed glued Stephanie Clifford, «You Never Listen to Celine Dion? Radio Meter Begs to Differ,» The New York Times, December 15, 2009; Tim Feran, «Why Radio’s Changing Its Tune,» The Columbus Dispatch, June 13, 2010.

7.19 the superior parietal cortex G. S. Berns, C. M. Capra, and S. Moore, «Neural Mechanisms of the Influence of Popularity on Adolescent Ratings of Music,» NeuroImage 49, no. 3 (2010): 2687—96; J. Bharucha, F. Musiek, and M. Tramo, «Music Perception and Cognition Following Bilateral Lesions of Auditory Cortex,» Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2, no. 3 (1990): 195—212; Stefan Koelsch and Walter Siebel, «Towards a Neural Basis of Music Perception,» Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9, no. 12 (2005): 578—84; S. Brown, M. Martinez, and L. Parsons, «Passive Music Listening Spontaneously Engages Limbic and Paralimbic Systems,» NeuroReport 15, no. 13 (2004): 2033—37; Josef Rauschecker, «Cortical Processing of Complex Sounds,» Current Opinion in Neurobiology 8, no. 4 (1998): 516—21; J. Kaas, T. Hackett, and M. Tramo, «Auditory Processing in Primate Cerebral Cortex,» Current Opinion in Neurobiology 9, no. 2 (1999): 164—70; S. Koelsch, «Neural Substrates of Processing Syntax and Semantics in Music,» Current Opinion in Neurobiology 15 (2005): 207—12; A. Lahav, E. Saltzman, and G. Schlaug, «Action Representation of Sound: Audiomotor Recognition Network While Listening to Newly Acquired Actions,» Journal of Neuroscience 27, no. 2 (2007): 308—14; D. Levitin and V. Menon, «Musical Structure Is Processed in ’Language’ Areas of the Brain: A Possible Role for Brodmann Area 47 in Temporal Coherence,» NeuroImage 20, no. 4 (2003): 2142—52; J. Chen, V. Penhume, and R. Zatorre, «When the Brain Plays Music: Auditory-Motor Interactions in Music Perception and Production,» Nature Reviews Neuroscience 8, 547—58.

7.20 a cacophony of noise N. S. Rickard and D. Ritossa, «The Relative Utility of ’Pleasantness’ and ’Liking’ Dimensions in Predicting the Emotions Expressed by Music,» Psychology of Music 32, no. 1 (2004): 5—22; G. Berns, C. Capra, and S. Moore, «Neural Mechanisms of the Influence of Popularity on Adolescent Ratings of Music,» NeuroImage 49, no. 3 (2010): 2687—96; David Hargreaves and Adrian North, «Subjective Complexity, Familiarity, and Liking for Popular Music,» Psychomusicology 14, no. 1996 (1995): 77—93. For more on this fascinating topic of how familiarity influences attractiveness across numerous senses, see also G. Berns, S. McClure, and G. Pagnoni, «Predictability Modulates Human Brain Response to Reward,» Journal of Neuroscience 21, no. 8 (2001): 2793—98; D. Brainard, «The Psychophysics Toolbox,» Spatial Vision 10 (1997): 433—36; J. Cloutier, T. Heatherton, and P. Whalen, «Are Attractive People Rewarding? Sex Differences in the Neural Substrates of Facial Attractiveness,» Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 20, no. 6 (2008): 941—51; J. Kable and P. Glimcher, «The Neural Correlates of Subjective Value During Intertemporal Choice,» Nature Neuroscience 10, no. 12 (2007): 1625—33; S. McClure et al., «Neural Correlates of Behavioral Preference for Culturally Familiar Drinks,» Neuron 44, no. 2 (2004): 379—87; C. J. Assad and Padoa-Schioppa, «Neurons in the Orbitofrontal Cortex Encode Economic Value,» Nature 441, no. 7090 (2006): 223—26; H. Plassmann et al., «Marketing Actions Can Modulate Neural Representations of Experienced Pleasantness,» Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 105, no. 3 (2008): 1050—54; Muzafer Sherif, The Psychology of Social Norms (New York: Harper and Row, 1936); Wendy Wood, «Attitude Change: Persuasion and Social Influence,» Annual Review of Psychology 51 (2000): 539—70; Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications, 2001); G. Berns et al., «Neural Mechanisms of Social Influence in Consumer Decisions,» working paper, 2009; G. Berns et al., «Nonlinear Neurobiological Probability Weighting Functions for Aversive Outcomes,» NeuroImage 39, no. 4 (2008): 2047—57; G. Berns et al., «Neurobiological Substrates of Dread,» Science 312, no. 5 (2006): 754—58; G. Berns, J. Chappelow, and C. Zink, «Neurobiological Correlates of Social Conformity and Independence During Mental Rotation,» Biological Psychiatry 58, no. 3 (2005): 245—53; R. Bettman, M. Luce, and J. Payne, «Constructive Consumer Choice Processes,» Journal of Consumer Research 25, no. 3 (1998): 187—217; A. Blood and R. Zatorre, «Intensely Pleasurable Responses to Music Correlate with Activity in Brain Regions Implicated in Reward and Emotion,» Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 98, no. 20 (2001): 11818—23; C. Camerer, G. Loewenstein, and D. Prelec, «Neuroeconomics: How Neuroscience Can Inform Economics,» Journal of Economic Literature 43, no. 1 (2005): 9—64; C. Capra et al., «Neurobiological Regret and Rejoice Functions for Aversive Outcomes,» NeuroImage 39, no. 3 (2008): 1472—84; H. Critchley et al., «Neural Systems Supporting Interoceptive Awareness,» Nature Neuroscience 7, no. 2 (2004): 189—95; H. Bayer, M. Dorris, and P. Glimcher, «Physiological Utility Theory and the Neuroeconomics of Choice,» Games and Economic Behavior 52, no. 2, 213—56; M. Brett and J. Grahn, «Rhythm and Beat Perception in Motor Areas of the Brain,» Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 19, no. 5 (2007): 893—906; A. Hampton and J. O’doherty, «Decoding the Neural Substrates of Reward-Related Decision-Making with Functional MRI,» Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 104, no. 4 (2007): 1377—82; J. Birk et al., «The Cortical Topography of Tonal Structures Underlying Western Music,» Science 298 (2002): 2167—70; B. Knutson et al., «Neural Predictors of Purchases,» Neuron 53, no. 1 (2007): 147—56; B. Knutson et al., «Distributed Neural Representation of Expected Value,» Journal of Neuroscience 25, no. 19 (2005): 4806—12; S. Koelsch, «Neural Substrates of Processing Syntax and Semantics in Music,» Current Opinion in Neurobiology 15, no. 2 (2005): 207—12; T. Fritz et al., «Adults and Children Processing Music: An fMRI Study,» NeuroImage 25 (2005): 1068—76; T. Fritz et al., «Investigating Emotion with Music: An fMRI Study,» Human Brain Mapping 27 (2006): 239—50; T. Koyama et al., «The Subjective Experience of Pain: Where Expectations Becomes Reality,» Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 102, no. 36 (2005): 12950—55; A. Lahav, E. Saltzman, and G. Schlaug, «Action Representation of Sound: Audiomotor Recognition Network While Listening to Newly Acquired Actions,» Journal of Neuroscience 27, no. 2 (2007): 308—14; D. Levitin and V. Menon, «Musical Structure Is Processed in ’Language’ Areas of the Brain: A Possible Role for Brodmann Area 47 in Temporal Coherence,» NeuroImage 20, no. 4 (2003): 2142—52; G. Berns and P. Montague, «Neural Economics and the Biological Substrates of Valuation,» Neuron 36 (2002): 265—84; C. Camerer, P. Montague, and A. Rangel, «A Framework for Studying the Neurobiology of Value-Based Decision Making,» Nature Reviews Neuroscience 9 (2008): 545—56; C. Chafe et al., «Neural Dynamics of Event Segmentation in Music: Converging Evidence for Dissociable Ventral and Dorsal Networks,» Neuron 55, no. 3 (2007): 521—32; Damian Ritossa and Nikki Rickard, «The Relative Utility of ’Pleasantness’ and ’Liking’ Dimensions in Predicting the Emotions Expressed by Music,» Psychology of Music 32, no. 1 (2004): 5—22; Gregory S. Berns et al., «Neural Mechanisms of the Influence of Popularity on Adolescent Ratings of Music,» NeuroImage 49, no. 3 (2010): 2687—96; Adrian North and David Hargreaves, «Subjective Complexity, Familiarity, and Liking for Popular Music,» Psychomusicology 14, nos. 1—2 (1995): 77—93; Walter Ritter, Elyse Sussman, and Herbert Vaughan, «An Investigation of the Auditory Streaming Effect Using Event-Related Brain Potentials,» Psychophysiology 36, no. 1 (1999): 22—34; Elyse Sussman, Rika Takegata, and István Winkler, «Event-Related Brain Potentials Reveal Multiple Stages in the Perceptual Organization of Sound,» Cognitive Brain Research 25, no. 1 (2005): 291—99; Isabelle Peretz and Robert Zatorre, «Brain Organization for Music Processing,» Annual Review of Psychology 56, no. 1 (2005): 89—114.

7.21 a black market for poultry Charles Grutzner, «Horse Meat Consumption by New Yorkers Is Rising,» The New York Times, September 25, 1946.

7.22 camouflage it in everyday garb It is worth noting that this was only one of the committee’s many findings (which ranged far and wide). For a fascinating study on the committee and its impacts, see Brian Wansink, «Changing Eating Habits on the Home Front: Lost Lessons from World War II Research,» Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 21, no. 1 (2002): 90—99.

7.23 present-day researcher Wansink, «Changing Eating Habits on the Home Front.»

7.24 cheer for steak and kidney pie» Brian Wansink, Marketing Nutrition: Soy, Functional Foods, Biotechnology, and Obesity (Champaign: University of Illinois, 2007).

7.25 it was up 50 percent Dan Usher, «Measuring Real Consumption from Quantity Data, Canada 1935—1968,» in Household Production and Consumption, ed. Nestor Terleckyj (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1976). It’s very hard to get U.S. data on offal consumption, and so these calculations are based on Canadian trends, where data on the topic is more plentiful. In interviews, U.S. officials said that Canada is a fair proxy for U.S. trends. The calculations in Usher’s paper draw on calculations of «canned meat,» which contained offal.

7.26 «sizable increases in trips and sales» Target Corporation Analyst Meeting, October 18, 2005.

CHAPTER EIGHT

8.1 a ten-cent fare into the till For my understanding of the Montgomery bus boycott, I am indebted to those historians who have made themselves available to me, including John A. Kirk and Taylor Branch. My understanding of these events also draws on John A. Kirk, Martin Luther King, Jr.: Profiles in Power (New York: Longman, 2004); Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954—63 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Taylor Branch, Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963—65 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998); Taylor Branch, At Canaan’s Edge: America in the King Years, 1965—68 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006); Douglas Brinkley, Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: The Life of Rosa Parks (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2000); Martin Luther King, Jr., Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958); Clayborne Carson, ed., The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., vol. 1, Called to Serve (Berkeley: University of California, 1992), vol. 2, Rediscovering Precious Values (1994), vol. 3, Birth of a New Age (1997), vol. 4, Symbol of the Movement (2000), vol. 5, Threshold of a New Decade (2005); Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Free Press, 1986); James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (Seattle: University of Washington, 1997). Where not cited, facts draw primarily from those sources.

8.2 «You may do that,» Parks said Henry Hampton and Steve Fayer, eds., Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s Through the 1980s (New York: Bantam Books, 1995); Rosa Parks, Rosa Parks: My Story (New York: Puffin, 1999).

8.3 «the law is the law» John A. Kirk, Martin Luther King, Jr.: Profiles in Power (New York: Longman, 2004).

8.4 a three-part process For more on the sociology of movements, see G. Davis, D. McAdam, and W. Scott, Social Movements and Organizations (New York: Cambridge University, 2005); Robert Crain and Rita Mahard, «The Consequences of Controversy Accompanying Institutional Change: The Case of School Desegregation,» American Sociological Review 47, no. 6 (1982): 697—708; Azza Salama Layton, «International Pressure and the U.S. Government’s Response to Little Rock,» Arkansas Historical Quarterly 56, no. 3 (1997): 257—72; Brendan Nelligan, «The Albany Movement and the Limits of Nonviolent Protest in Albany, Georgia, 1961—1962,» Providence College Honors Thesis, 2009; Charles Tilly, Social Movements, 1768—2004 (London: Paradigm, 2004); Andrew Walder, «Political Sociology and Social Movements,» Annual Review of Sociology 35 (2009): 393—412; Paul Almeida, Waves of Protest: Popular Struggle in El Salvador, 1925—2005 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 2008); Robert Benford, «An Insider’s Critique of the Social Movement Framing Perspective,» Sociological Inquiry 67, no. 4 (1997): 409—30; Robert Benford and David Snow, «Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment,» Annual Review of Sociology 26 (2000): 611—39; Michael Burawoy, Manufacturing Consent: Changes in the Labor Process Under Monopoly Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1979); Carol Conell and Kim Voss, «Formal Organization and the Fate of Social Movements: Craft Association and Class Alliance in the Knights of Labor,» American Sociological Review 55, no. 2 (1990): 255—69; James Davies, «Toward a Theory of Revolution,» American Sociological Review 27, no. 1 (1962): 5—18; William Gamson, The Strategy of Social Protest (Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey, 1975); Robert Benford, «An Insider’s Critique of the Social Movement Framing Perspective,» Sociological Inquiry 67, no. 4 (1997): 409—30; Jeff Goodwin, No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945—1991 (New York: Cambridge University, 2001); Jeff Goodwin and James Jasper, eds., Rethinking Social Movements: Structure, Meaning, and Emotion (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003); Roger Gould, «Multiple Networks and Mobilization in the Paris Commune, 1871,» American Sociological Review 56, no. 6 (1991): 716—29; Joseph Gusfield, «Social Structure and Moral Reform: A Study of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union,» American Journal of Sociology 61, no. 3 (1955): 221—31; Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930—1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1982); Doug McAdam, «Recruitment to High-Risk Activism: The Case of Freedom Summer,» American Journal of Sociology 92, no. 1 (1986): 64—90; Doug McAdam, «The Biographical Consequences of Activism,» American Sociological Review 54, no. 5 (1989): 744—60; Doug McAdam, «Conceptual Origins, Current Problems, Future Directions,» in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings, ed. Doug McAdam, John McCarthy, and Mayer Zald (New York: Cambridge University, 1996); Doug McAdam and Ronnelle Paulsen, «Specifying the Relationship Between Social Ties and Activism,» American Journal of Sociology 99, no. 3 (1993): 640—67; D. McAdam, S. Tarrow, and C. Tilly, Dynamics of Contention (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2001); Judith Stepan-Norris and Judith Zeitlin, « ’Who Gets the Bird?’ or, How the Communists Won Power and Trust in America’s Unions,» American Sociological Review 54, no. 4 (1989): 503—23; Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1978).

8.5 talking back to a Montgomery bus driver Phillip Hoose, Claudette Colvin: Twice Toward Justice (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2009).

8.6 and refusing to move Ibid.

8.7 sitting next to a white man Russell Freedman, Freedom Walkers: The Story of the Montgomery Bus Boycott (New York: Holiday House, 2009).

8.8 «indignities which came with it» Martin Luther King, Jr., Stride Toward Freedom (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958).

8.9 «a dozen or so sociopaths» Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954—63 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988).

8.10 «white folks will kill you» Douglas Brinkley, Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: The Life of Rosa Parks (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2000).

8.11 «happy to go along with it» John A. Kirk, Martin Luther King, Jr.: Profiles in Power (New York: Longman, 2004).

8.12 in protest of the arrest and trial Carson, Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr.

8.13 how 282 men had found their Mark Granovetter, Getting a Job: A Study of Contacts and Careers (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1974).

8.14 we would otherwise never hear about Andreas Flache and Michael Macy, «The Weakness of Strong Ties: Collective Action Failure in a Highly Cohesive Group,» Journal of Mathematical Sociology 21 (1996): 3—28. For more on this topic, see Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Robert Bush and Frederick Mosteller, Stochastic Models for Learning (New York: Wiley, 1984); I. Erev, Y. Bereby-Meyer, and A. E. Roth, «The Effect of Adding a Constant to All Payoffs: Experimental Investigation and Implications for Reinforcement Learning Models,» Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 39, no. 1 (1999): 111—28; A. Flache and R. Hegselmann, «Rational vs. Adaptive Egoism in Support Networks: How Different Micro Foundations Shape Different Macro Hypotheses,» in Game Theory, Experience, Rationality: Foundations of Social Sciences, Economics, and Ethics in Honor of John C. Harsanyi (Yearbook of the Institute Vienna Circle), ed. W. Leinfellner and E. Köhler (Boston: Kluwer, 1997), 261—75; A. Flache and R. Hegselmann, «Rationality vs. Learning in the Evolution of Solidarity Networks: A Theoretical Comparison,» Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory 5, no. 2 (1999): 97—127; A. Flache and R. Hegselmann, «Dynamik Sozialer Dilemma-Situationen,» final research report of the DFG-Project Dynamics of Social Dilemma Situations, University of Bayreuth, Department of Philosophie, 2000; A. Flache and Michael Macy, «Stochastic Collusion and the Power Law of Learning,» Journal of Conflict Resolution 46, no. 5 (2002): 629—53; Michael Macy, «Learning to Cooperate: Stochastic and Tacit Collusion in Social Exchange,» American Journal of Sociology 97, no. 3 (1991): 808—43; E. P. H. Zeggelink, «Evolving Friendship Networks: An Individual-Oriented Approach Implementing Similarity,» Social Networks 17 (1996): 83—110; Judith Blau, «When Weak Ties Are Structured,» unpublished manuscript, Department of Sociology, State University of New York, Albany, 1980; Peter Blau, «Parameters of Social Structure,» American Sociological Review 39, no. 5 (1974): 615—35; Scott Boorman, «A Combinatorial Optimization Model for Transmission of Job Information Through Contact Networks,» Bell Journal of Economics 6, no. 1 (1975): 216—49; Ronald Breiger and Philippa Pattison, «The Joint Role Structure of Two Communities’ Elites,» Sociological Methods and Research 7, no. 2 (1978): 213—26; Daryl Chubin, «The Conceptualization of Scientific Specialties,» Sociological Quarterly 17, no. 4 (1976): 448—76; Harry Collins, «The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks,» Science Studies 4, no. 2 (1974): 165—86; Rose Coser, «The Complexity of Roles as Seedbed of Individual Autonomy,» in The Idea of Social Structure: Essays in Honor of Robert Merton, ed. L. Coser (New York: Harcourt, 1975); John Delany, «Aspects of Donative Resource Allocation and the Efficiency of Social Networks: Simulation Models of Job Vacancy Information Transfers Through Personal Contacts,» PhD diss., Yale University, 1980; E. Ericksen and W. Yancey, «The Locus of Strong Ties,» unpublished manuscript, Department of Sociology, Temple University, 1980.

8.15 most of the population will be untouched Mark Granovetter, «The Strength of Weak Ties: A Network Theory Revisited,» Sociological Theory 1 (1983): 201—33.

8.16 registering black voters in the South McAdam, «Recruitment to High-Risk Activism.»

8.17 more than three hundred of those invited Ibid.; Paulsen, «Specifying the Relationship Between Social Ties and Activism.»

8.18 participated in Freedom Summer In a fact-checking email, McAdam provided a few details about the study’s genesis: «My initial interest was in trying to understand the links between the civil rights movement and the other early new left movements, specifically the student movement, the anti-war movement, and women’s liberation movement. It was only after I found the applications and realized that some were from volunteers and others from ’no shows’ that I got interested in explaining (a) why some made it to Mississippi and others didn’t, and (b) the longer term impact of going/not-going on the two groups.»

8.19 impossible for them to withdraw In another fact-checking email, McAdam wrote: «For me the significance of the organizational ties is not that they make it ’impossible’ for the volunteer to withdraw, but that they insure that the applicant will likely receive lots of support for the link between the salient identity in question (i.e., Christian) and participation in the summer project. As I noted in [an article] ’it is a strong subjective identification with a particular identity, reinforced by organizational ties that is especially likely to encourage participation.’ »

8.20 «getting together there without you» Tom Mathews and Roy Wilkins, Standing Fast: The Autobiography of Roy Wilkins (Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo, 1994).

8.21 «boycott of city buses Monday» Branch, Parting the Waters.

8.22 «singing out, ’No riders today’ » King, Stride Toward Freedom; James M. Washington, A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. (New York: HarperCollins, 1990).

8.23 was in doubt King, Stride Toward Freedom.

8.24 drawing circles around major U.S. cities For understanding Pastor Warren’s story, I am indebted to Rick Warren, Glenn Kruen, Steve Gladen, Jeff Sheler, Anne Krumm, and the following books: Jeffrey Sheler, Prophet of Purpose: The Life of Rick Warren (New York: Doubleday, 2009); Rick Warren, The Purpose-Driven Church (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1995); and the following articles: Barbara Bradley, «Marketing That New-Time Religion,» Los Angeles Times, December 10, 1995; John Wilson, «Not Just Another Mega Church,» Christianity Today, December 4, 2000; «Therapy of the Masses,» The Economist, November 6, 2003; «The Glue of Society,» The Economist, July 14, 2005; Malcolm Gladwell, «The Cellular Church,» The New Yorker, September 12, 2005; Alex MacLeod, «Rick Warren: A Heart for the Poor,» Presbyterian Record, January 1, 2008; Andrew, Ann, and John Kuzma, «How Religion Has Embraced Marketing and the Implications for Business,» Journal of Management and Marketing Research 2 (2009): 1—10.

8.25 «our destination was a settled issue» Warren, Purpose-Driven Church.

8.26 «any chance of liberating multitudes» Donald McGavran, The Bridges of God (New York: Friendship Press, 1955). Italics added.

8.27 «How to Survive Under Stress» Sheler, Prophet of Purpose.

8.28 «I’m going to have to sit down» In a fact-checking email a Saddleback spokesperson, provided additional details: «Rick suffers from a brain chemistry disorder that makes him allergic to adrenaline. This genetic problem resists medication and makes public speaking painful, with blurred vision, headaches, hot flashes, and panic. Symptoms usually last around fifteen minutes; by that time, enough adrenaline is expended so the body can return to normal function. (His adrenaline rushes, like any speaker might experience, whenever he gets up to preach.) Pastor Rick says this weakness keeps him dependent on God.»

8.29 «habits that will help you grow» Discovering Spiritual Maturity, Class 201, published by Saddleback Church, http://www.saddlebackresources.com/CLASS-201-Discovering-Spiritual-Maturity-Complete-Kit-Download-P3532.aspx.

8.30 «we just … get out of your way» In a fact-checking email a Saddleback spokesperson said that while an important tenet of Saddleback is teaching people to guide themselves, «this implies that each person can go in any direction they choose. Biblical principles/guidelines have a clear direction. The goal of small group study is to teach people the spiritual disciplines of faith and everyday habits that can be applied to daily life.»

8.31 «community to continue the struggle» Martin Luther King, Jr., The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr., ed. Clayborne Carson (New York: Grand Central, 2001).

8.32 «shall perish by the sword» Carson; King,

8.33 segregation law violated the Constitution Browder v. Gayle, 352 U.S. 903 (1956).

8.34 and sat in the front Washington, Testament of Hope.

8.35 «glad to have you» Kirk, Martin Luther King, Jr.

8.36 «work and worry of the boycott» Ibid.

CHAPTER NINE

9.1 reorganizing the silverware drawer «Angie Bachmann» is a pseudonym. Reporting for her story is based on more than ten hours of interviews with Bachmann, additional interviews with people who know Bachmann, and dozens of news articles and court filings. However, when Bachmann was presented with fact-checking questions, she declined to participate except to state that almost all details were inaccurate—including those she had previously confirmed, as well as facts confirmed by other sources, in court records, or by public documents—and then she cut off communication.

9.2 «while thousands are injured» The Writings of George Washington, vol. 8, ed. Jared Sparks (1835).

9.3 swelled by more than $269 million Iowa Racing and Gaming Commission, Des Moines, Iowa, 2010.

9.4 «What have I done?» Simon de Bruxelles, «Sleepwalker Brian Thomas Admits Killing Wife While Fighting Intruders in Nightmare,» The Times, November 18, 2009.

9.5 «I thought somebody had broken in» Jane Mathews, «My Horror, by Husband Who Strangled Wife in Nightmare,» Daily Express, December 16, 2010.

9.6 «She’s my world» Simon de Bruxelles, «Sleepwalker Brian Thomas Admits Killing Wife While Fighting Intruders in Nightmare.» The Times, November 18, 2009.

9.7 annoying but benign problem In some instances, people sleepwalk while they experience dreams, a condition known as REM sleep behavior disorder (see C. H. Schenck et al., «Motor Dyscontrol in Narcolepsy: Rapid-Eye-Movement [REM] Sleep Without Atonia and REM Sleep Behavior Disorder,» Annals of Neurology 32, no. 1 [July 1992]: 3—10). In other instances, people are not dreaming, but move nonetheless.

9.8 something called sleep terrors C. Bassetti, F. Siclari, and R. Urbaniok, «Violence in Sleep,» Schweizer Archiv Fur Neurologie und Psychiatrie 160, no. 8 (2009): 322—33.

9.9 the higher brain to put things C. A. Tassinari et al., «Biting Behavior, Aggression, and Seizures,» Epilepsia 46, no. 5 (2005): 654—63; C. Bassetti et al., «SPECT During Sleepwalking,» The Lancet 356, no. 9228 (2000): 484—85; K. Schindler et al., «Hypoperfusion of Anterior Cingulate Gyrus in a Case of Paroxysmal Nocturnal Dustonia,» Neurology 57, no. 5 (2001): 917—20; C. A. Tassinari et al., «Central Pattern Generators for a Common Semiology in Fronto-Limbic Seizures and in Parasomnias,» Neurological Sciences 26, no. 3 (2005): 225—32.

9.10 «64% of cases, with injuries in 3%» P. T. D’Orban and C. Howard, «Violence in Sleep: Medico-Legal Issues and Two Case Reports,» Psychological Medicine 17, no. 4 (1987): 915—25; B. Boeve, E. Olson, and M. Silber, «Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Behavior Disorder: Demographic, Clinical, and Laboratory Findings in 93 Cases,» Brain 123, no. 2 (2000): 331—39.

9.11 both the United States and the United Kingdom John Hudson, «Common Law—Henry II and the Birth of a State,» BBC, February 17, 2011; Thomas Morawetz, «Murder and Manslaughter: Degrees of Seriousness, Common Law and Statutory Law, the Model Penal Code,» Law Library—American Law and Legal Information, http://law.jrank.org/pages/18652/Homicide.html.

9.12 would have never consciously carried out M. Diamond, «Criminal Responsibility of the Addiction: Conviction by Force of Habit,» Fordham Urban Law Journal 1, no. 3 (1972); R. Broughton et al., «Homicidal Somnambulism: A Case Report,» Sleep 17, no. 3 (1994): 253—64; R. Cartwright, «Sleepwalking Violence: A Sleep Disorder, a Legal Dilemma, and a Psychological Challenge,» American Journal of Psychiatry 161, no. 7 (2004): 1149—58; P. Fenwick, «Automatism, Medicine, and the Law,» Psychological Medicine Monograph Supplement, no. 17 (1990): 1—27; M. Hanson, «Toward a New Assumption in Law and Ethics,» The Humanist 66, no. 4 (2006).

9.13 attack occurred during a sleep terror L. Smith-Spark, «How Sleepwalking Can Lead to Killing,» BBC News, March 18, 2005.

9.14 later acquitted of attempted murder Beth Hale, «Sleepwalk Defense Clears Woman of Trying to Murder Her Mother in Bed,» Daily Mail, June 3, 2009.

9.15 sleep terrors and was found not guilty John Robertson and Gareth Rose, «Sleepwalker Is Cleared of Raping Teenage Girl,» The Scotsman, June 22, 2011.

9.16 «Why did I do it?» Stuart Jeffries, «Sleep Disorder: When the Lights Go Out,» The Guardian, December 5, 2009.

9.17 «his mind had no control» Richard Smith, «Grandad Killed His Wife During a Dream,» The Mirror, November 18, 2009.

9.18 «a straight not guilty verdict» Anthony Stone, «Nightmare Man Who Strangled His Wife in a ’Night Terror’ Walks Free,» Western Mail, November 21, 2009.

9.19 you bear no responsibility Ibid.

9.20 to perfect their methods Christina Binkley, «Casino Chain Mines Data on Its Gamblers, and Strikes Pay Dirt,» The Wall Street Journal, November 22, 2004; Rajiv Lal, «Harrah’s Entertainment, Inc.,» Harvard Business School, case no. 9—604—016, June 14, 2004; K. Ahsan et al., «Harrah’s Entertainment, Inc.: Real-Time CRM in a Service Supply Chain,» Harvard Business Review, case no. GS50, May 8, 2006; V. Chang and J. Pfeffer, «Gary Loveman and Harrah’s Entertainment,» Harvard Business Review, case no. OB45, November 4, 2003; Gary Loveman, «Diamonds in the Data Mine,» Harvard Business Review, case no. R0305H, May 1, 2003.

9.21 to the cent and minute In a statement, Caesars Entertainment wrote: «Under the terms of the settlement reached in May of 2011 between Caesars Riverboat Casino and [Bachmann], both sides (including their representatives) are precluded from discussing certain details of the case.… There are many specific points we would contest, but we are unable to do so at this point. You have asked several questions revolving around conversations that allegedly took place between [Bachmann] and unnamed Caesars affiliated employees. Because she did not provide names, there is no independent verification of her accounts, and we hope your reporting will reflect that, either by omitting the stories or by making it clear that they are unverified. Like most large companies in the service industry, we pay attention to our customers’ purchasing decisions as a way of monitoring customer satisfaction and evaluating the effectiveness of our marketing campaigns. Like most companies, we look for ways to attract customers, and we make efforts to maintain them as loyal customers. And like most companies, when our customers change their established patterns, we try to understand why, and encourage them to return. That’s no different than a hotel chain, an airline, or a dry cleaner. That’s what good customer service is about.… Caesars Entertainment (formerly known as Harrah’s Entertainment) and its affiliates have long been an industry leader in responsible gaming. We were the first gaming company to develop a written Code of Commitment that governs how we treat our guests. We were the first casino company with a national self-exclusion program that allows customers to ban themselves from all of our properties if they feel they have a problem, or for any other reason. And we are the only casino company to fund a national television advertising campaign to promote responsible gaming. We hope your writing will reflect that history, as well as the fact that none of [Bachmann’s] statements you cite have been independently verified.»

9.22 «did do those nice things for me» In a statement, Caesars Entertainment wrote: «We would never fire or penalize a host if one of their guests stopped visiting (unless it was the direct result of something the host did). And none of our hosts would be allowed to tell a guest that he or she would be fired or otherwise penalized if that guest did not visit.»

9.23 watch a slot machine spin around M. Dixon and R. Habib, «Neurobehavioral Evidence for the ’Near-Miss’ Effect in Pathological Gamblers,» Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 93, no. 3 (2010): 313—28; H. Chase and L. Clark, «Gambling Severity Predicts Midbrain Response to Near-Miss Outcomes,» Journal of Neuroscience 30, no. 18 (2010): 6180—87; L. Clark et al., «Gambling Near-Misses Enhance Motivation to Gamble and Recruit Win-Related Brain Circuitry,» Neuron 61, no. 3 (2009): 481—90; Luke Clark, «Decision-Making During Gambling: An Integration of Cognitive and Psychobiological Approaches,» Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 365, no. 1538 (2010): 319—30.

9.24 bounced checks at a casino H. Lesieur and S. Blume, «The South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS): A New Instrument for the Identification of Pathological Gamblers,» American Journal of Psychiatry 144, no. 9 (1987): 1184—88. In a fact-checking letter, Habib wrote, «Many of our subjects were categorized as pathological gamblers based on other types of behavior that the screening form asks about. For example, it would have been sufficient for a participant to have been counted as a pathological gambler if they simply: 1) had gambled to win money that they had previously lost gambling, and 2) on some occasions they gambled more than they had intended to. We used a very low threshold to classify our subjects as pathological gamblers.»

9.25 circuitry involved in the habit loop M. Potenza, V. Voon, and D. Weintraub, «Drug Insight: Impulse Control Disorders and Dopamine Therapies in Parkinson’s Disease,» Nature Clinical Practice Neurology 12, no. 3 (2007): 664—72; J. R. Cornelius et al., «Impulse Control Disorders with the Use of Dopaminergic Agents in Restless Legs Syndrome: A Case Control Study,» Sleep 22, no. 1 (2010): 81—87.

9.26 Hundreds of similar cases are pending Ed Silverman, «Compulsive Gambler Wins Lawsuit Over Mirapex,» Pharmalot, July 31, 2008.

9.27 «gamblers are in control of their actions» For more on the neurology of gambling, see A. J. Lawrence et al., «Problem Gamblers Share Deficits in Impulsive Decision-Making with Alcohol-Dependent Individuals,» Addiction 104, no. 6 (2009): 1006—15; E. Cognat et al., « ’Habit’ Gambling Behaviour Caused by Ischemic Lesions Affecting the Cognitive Territories of the Basal Ganglia,» Journal of Neurology 257, no. 10 (2010): 1628—32; J. Emshoff, D. Gilmore, and J. Zorland, «Veterans and Problem Gambling: A Review of the Literature,» Georgia State University, February 2010, http://www2.gsu.edu/~psyjge/Rsrc/PG_IPV_Veterans.pdf; T. van Eimeren et al., «Drug-Induced Deactivation of Inhibitory Networks Predicts Pathological Gambling in PD,» Neurology 75, no. 19 (2010): 1711—16; L. Cottler and K. Leung, «Treatment of Pathological Gambling,» Current Opinion in Psychiatry 22, no. 1 (2009): 69—74; M. Roca et al., «Executive Functions in Pathologic Gamblers Selected in an Ecologic Setting,» Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology 21, no. 1 (2008): 1—4; E. D. Driver-Dunckley et al., «Gambling and Increased Sexual Desire with Dopaminergic Medications in Restless Legs Syndrome,» Clinical Neuropharmacology 30, no. 5 (2007): 249—55; Erin Gibbs Van Brunschot, «Gambling and Risk Behaviour: A Literature Review,» University of Calgary, March 2009.

9.28 «they’re acting without choice» In an email, Habib clarified his thoughts on this topic: «It is a question about free will and self-control, and one that falls as much in the domain of philosophy as in cognitive neuroscience.… If we say that the gambling behavior in the Parkinson’s patient is out of their own hands and driven by their medication, why can’t we (or don’t we) make the same argument in the case of the pathological gambler given that the same areas of the brain seem to be active? The only (somewhat unsatisfactory) answer that I can come up with (and one that you mention yourself) is that as a society we are more comfortable removing responsibility if there is an external agent that it can be placed upon. So, it is easy in the Parkinson’s case to say that the gambling pathology resulted from the medication, but in the case of the pathological gambler, because there is no external agent influencing their behavior (well, there is—societal pressures, casino billboards, life stresses, etc.—but, nothing as pervasive as medication that a person must take), we are more reluctant to blame the addiction and prefer to put the responsibility for their pathological behavior on themselves—’they should know better and not gamble,’ for example. I think as cognitive neuroscientists learn more—and ’modern’ brain imaging is only about 20—25 years old as a field—perhaps some of these misguided societal beliefs (that even we cognitive neuroscientists sometimes hold) will slowly begin to change. For example, from our data, while I can comfortably conclude that there are definite differences in the brains of pathological gamblers versus non-pathological gamblers, at least when they are gambling, and I might even be able to make some claims such as the near-misses appear more win-like to the pathological gambler but more loss-like to the non-pathological gambler, I cannot state with any confidence or certainty that these differences therefore imply that the pathological gambler does not have a choice when they see a billboard advertising a local casino—that they are a slave to their urges. In the absence of hard direct evidence, I guess the best we can do is draw inferences by analogy, but there is much uncertainty associated with such comparisons.»

9.29 «whatever the latter may be» William James, Talks to Teachers on Psychology: and to Students on Some of Life’s Ideals.

9.30 the Metaphysical Club Louis Menand, The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2002).

9.31 «traced by itself before» James is quoting the French psychologist and philosopher Léon Dumont’s essay «De l’habitude.»

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

CHARLES DUHIGG is an investigative reporter for The New York Times, where he contributes to the newspaper and the magazine. He authored or contributed to Golden Opportunities (2007), a series of articles that examined how companies are trying to take advantage of aging Americans, The Reckoning (2008), which studied the causes and outcomes of the financial crisis, and Toxic Waters (2009), about the worsening pollution in American waters and regulators’ response.

For his work, Mr. Duhigg has received the National Academies of Sciences, National Journalism, George Polk, Gerald Loeb, and other awards, and he was part of a team of finalists for the 2009 Pulitzer Prize. He has appeared on This American Life, The Dr. Oz Show, NPR, The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, and Frontline.

Mr. Duhigg is a graduate of Harvard Business School and Yale University. Before becoming a journalist, Mr. Duhigg worked in private equity and—for one terrifying day—was a bike messenger in San Francisco.

Mr. Duhigg can acquire bad habits—most notably regarding fried foods—within minutes, and lives in Brooklyn with his wife, a marine biologist, and their two sons, whose habits include waking at 5:00 A.M., flinging food at dinnertime, and smiling perfectly.

CHARLES DUHIGG is available for select readings and lectures. To inquire about a possible appearance, please contact the Random House Speakers Bureau at 212-572-2013 or rhspeakers@randomhouse.com.