NOTES - Human: The Science Behind What Makes Us Unique - Michael S. Gazzaniga

Human: The Science Behind What Makes Us Unique - Michael S. Gazzaniga (2008)

NOTES

Chapter 1: ARE HUMAN BRAINS UNIQUE?

1. Preuss, T.M. (2001). The discovery of cerebral diversity: An unwelcome scientific revolution. In Falk, D., and Gibson, K. (eds.), Evolutionary Anatomy of the Primate Cerebral Cortex (pp. 138-64). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2. Darwin, C. (1871). The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. London: John Murray (Facsimile edition, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981). In Preuss (2001).

3. Huxley, T.H. (1863). Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature. London: Williams and Morgate (Reissued 1959, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press). In Preuss (2001).

4. Holloway, R.L., Jr. (1966). Cranial capacity and neuron number: A critique and proposal. American Journal of Anthropology 25: 305-14.

5. Preuss, T.M. (2006). Who’s afraid of Homo sapiens? Journal of Biomedical Discovery and Collaboration 1, www.j-biomed-discovery.com/content/1/1/17.

6. Striedter, G.F. (2005). Principles of Brain Evolution. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.

7. Jerrison, H.J. (1991). Brain Size and the Evolution of Mind. New York: Academic Press.

8. Roth, G. (2002). Is the human brain unique? In Stamenov, M.I., and Gallese, V. (eds.), Mirror Neurons and the Evolution of Brain and Language (pp. 64-76). Philadelphia: John Benjamin.

9. Klein, R.G. (1999). The Human Career. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

10. Simek, J. (1992). Neanderthal cognition and the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition. In Brauer, G., and Smith, G.H. (eds.), Continuity or Replacement? Controversies in Homo sapiens Evolution (pp. 231-35) Rotterdam: Balkema.

11. Smirnov, Y. (1989). Intentional human burial: Middle Paleolithic (last glaciation) beginnings. Journal of World Prehistory 3: 199-233.

12. Deacon, T.W. (1997). The Symbolic Species. London: Penguin.

13. Gilead, I. (1991). The Upper Paleolithic period in the Levant. Journal of World Prehistory 5: 105-54.

14. Hublin, J.J., and Bailey, S.E. (2006). Revisiting the last Neanderthals. In Conard, N.J. (ed.), When Neanderthals and Modern Humans Met (pp. 105-28). Tübingen: Kerns Verlag.

15. Dorus, S., Vallender, E.J., Evans, P.D., Anderson, J.R., Gilbert, S.L., Mahowald, M., Wyckoff, G.J., Malcom, C.M., and Lahn, B.T. (2004). Accelerated evolution of nervous system genes in the origin of Homo sapiens. Cell 119: 1027-40.

16. Jackson, A.P., Eastwood, H., Bell, S.M., Adu, J., Toomes, C., Carr, I.M., Roberts, E., et al. (2002). Identification of microcephalin, a protein implicated in determining the size of the human brain. American Journal of Human Genetics 71: 136-42.

17. Bond, J., Roberts, E., Mochida, G.H., Hampshire, D.J., Scott, S., Askham, J.M., Springell, K., et al. (2002). ASPM is a major determinant of cerebral cortical size. Nature Genetics 32: 316-20.

18. Ponting, C., and Jackson, A. (2005). Evolution of primary microcephaly genes and the enlargement of primate brains. Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 15: 241-48.

19. Evans, P.D., Anderson, J.R., Vallender, E.J., Choi, S.S., and Lahn, B.T. (2004). Reconstructing the evolutionary history of microcephalin, a gene controlling human brain size. Human Molecular Genetics 13: 1139-45.

20. Evans, P.D., Anderson, J.R., Vallender, E.J., Gilbert, S.L., Malcom, C.M., Dorus, S., and Lahn, B.T. (2004). Adaptive evolution of ASPM, a major determinant of cerebral cortical size in humans. Human Molecular Genetics 13: 489-94.

21. Evans, P.D., Gilbert, S.L., Mekel-Bobrov, N., Ballender, E.J., Anderson, J.R., Baez-Azizi, L.M., Tishkoff, S.A., Hudson, R.R., and Lahn, B.T. (2005). Microcephalin, a gene regulating brain size, continues to evolve adaptively in humans. Science 309: 1717-20.

22. Mekel-Bobrov, N., Gilbert, S.L., Evans, P.D., Ballender, E.J., Anderson, J.R., Hudson, R.R., Tishkoff, S.A., and Lahn, B.T. (2005). Ongoing adaptive evolution of ASPM, a brain size determinant in Homo sapiens. Science 309: 1720-22.

23. Lahn, B.T., www.hhmi.org/news/lahn4.html.

24. Deacon, T.W. (1990). Rethinking mammalian brain evolution. American Zoology 30: 629-705.

25. Semendeferi, K., Lu, A., Schenker, N., and Damasio, H. (2002). Humans and great apes share a large frontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience 5: 272-76.

26. Semendeferi, K., Damasio, H., Frank, R., and Van Hoesen, G.W. (1997). The evolution of the frontal lobes: A volumetric analysis based on three-dimensional reconstructions of magnetic resonance scans of human and ape brains. Journal of Human Evolution 32: 375-88.

27. Semendeferi, K., Armstrong, E., Schleicher, A., Zilles, K., and Van Hoesen, G.W. (2001). Prefrontal cortex in humans and apes: A comparative study of area 10. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 114: 224-41.

28. Schoenemann, P.T., Sheehan, M.J., and Glotzer, L.D. (2005). Prefrontal white matter volume is disproportionately larger in humans than in other primates. Nature Neuroscience 8: 242-52.

29. Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes’ Error. New York: Putnam.

30. Johnson-Frey, S.H. (2003). What’s so special about human tool use? Neuron 39: 201-4.

31. Johnson-Frey, S.H. (2003). Cortical mechanisms of tool use. In Johnson-Frey, S.H. (ed.), Taking Action: Cognitive Neuroscience Perspectives on the Problem of Intentional Movements (pp. 185-217). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

32. Johnson-Frey, S.H., Newman-Morland, R., and Grafton, S.T. (2005). A distributed left hemisphere network active during planning of everyday tool use skills. Cerebral Cortex 15: 681-95.

33. Buxhoeveden, D.P., Switala, A.E., Roy, E., Litaker, M., and Casanova, M.F. (2001). Morphological differences between minicolumns in human and nonhuman primate cortex. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115: 361-71.

34. Casanova, M.F., Buxhoeveden, D., and Soha, G.S. (2000). Brain development and evolution. In Ernst, M., and Rumse, J.M. (eds.), Functional Neuroimaging in Child Psychiatry (pp. 113-36). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

35. Goodhill, G.J., and Carreira-Perpinan, M.A. (2002). Cortical columns. In Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.

36. Marcus, J.A. (2003). Radial Neuron Number and Mammalian Brain Evolution: Reassessing the Neocortical Uniformity Hypothesis. Boston: Doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University.

37. Mountcastle, V.B. (1957). Modality and topographic properties of single neurons of cat’s somatic sensory cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology 20: 408-34.

38. Buxhoeveden, D.P., and Casanova, M.F. (2002). The minicolumn hypothesis in neuroscience. Brain 125: 935-51.

39. Jones, E.G. (2000). Microcolumns in the cerebral cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97: 5019-21.

40. Mountcastle, V.B. (1997). The columnar organization of the neocortex. Brain 120: 701-22.

41. Barone, P., and Kennedy, H. (2000). Non-uniformity of neocortex: Areal heterogeneity of NADPH-diaphorase reactive neurons in adult macaque monkeys. Cerebral Cortex 10: 160-74.

42. Beaulieu, C. (1993). Numerical data on neocortical neurons in adult rat, with special reference to the GABA population. Brain Research 609: 284-92.

43. Elston, G.N. (2003). Cortex, cognition and the cell: New insights into the pyramidal neuron and prefrontal function. Cerebral Cortex 13: 1124-38.

44. Preuss, T. (2000a). Preface: From basic uniformity to diversity in cortical organization. Brain Behavior and Evolution 55: 283-86.

45. Preuss, T. (2000b). Taking the measure of diversity: Comparative alternatives to the model-animal paradigm in cortical neuroscience. Brain Behavior and Evolution 55: 287-99.

46. Marin-Padilla, M. (1992). Ontogenesis of the pyramidal cell of the mammalian neocortex and developmental cytoarchitectonics: A unifying theory. Journal of Comparative Neurology 321: 223-40.

47. Caviness, V.S.J., Takahashi, T., and Nowakowski, R.S. (1995). Numbers, time and neocortical neurogenesis: A general developmental and evolutionary model. Trends in Neuroscience 18: 379-83.

48. Fuster, J.M. (2003). Neurobiology of cortical networks. In Cortex and Mind (pp. 17-53). New York: Oxford University Press.

49. Jones, E.G. (1981). Anatomy of cerebral cortex: Columnar input-output organization. In Schmitt, F.O., Worden, F.G., Adelman, G., and Dennis, S.G. (eds.), The Organization of the Cerebral Cortex (pp. 199-235). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

50. Hutsler, J.J., and Galuske, R.A.W. (2003). Hemispheric asymmetries in cerebral cortical networks. Trends in Neuroscience 26: 429-35.

51. Ramón y Cajal, S. (1990). The cerebral cortex. In New Ideas on the Structure of the Nervous System in Man and Vertebrates (pp. 35-72). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

52. Elston, G.N., and Rosa, M.G.P. (2000). Pyramidal cells, patches and cortical columns: A comparative study of infragranular neurons in TEO, TE, and the superior temporal polysensory area of the macaque monkey. Journal of Neuroscience 20: RC117: 1-5.

53. Hutsler, J.J., Lee, D.-G., and Porter, K.K. (2005). Comparative analysis of cortical layering and supragranular layer enlargement in rodent, carnivore, and primate species. Brain Research 1052: 71-81.

54. Caviness, V.S.J., Takahashi, T., and Nowakowski, R.S. (1995). Numbers, time and neocortical neurogenesis: A general developmental and evolutionary model. Trends in Neuroscience 18: 379-83.

55. Hutsler, J.J., Lee, D.-G., and Porter, K.K. (2005). Comparative analysis of cortical layering and supragranular layer enlargement in rodent, carnivore, and primate species. Brain Research 1052: 71-81.

56. Darlington, R.B., Dunlop, S.A., and Finlay, B.L. (1999). Neural development in metatherian and eutherian mammals: Variation and constraint. Journal of Comparative Neurology 411: 359-68.

57. Finlay, B.L., and Darlington, R.B. (1995). Linked regularities in the development and evolution of mammalian brains. Science 268: 1578-84.

58. Rakic, P. (1981). Developmental events leading to laminar and areal organization of the neocortex. In Schmitt, F.O., Worden, F.G., Adelman, G., and Dennis, S.G. (eds.), The Organization of the Cerebral Cortex (pp. 7-28). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

59. Rakic, P. (1988). Specification of cerebral cortical areas. Science 241: 170-76.

60. Ringo, J.L., Doty, R.W., Demeter, S., and Simard, P.Y. (1994). Time is of the essence: A conjecture that hemispheric specialization arises from interhemispheric conduction delay. Cerebral Cortex 4: 331-34.

61. Hamilton, C.R., and Vermeire, B.A. (1988). Complementary hemisphere specialization in monkeys. Science 242: 1691-94.

62. Cherniak, C. (1994). Component placement optimization in the brain. Journal of Neuroscience 14: 2418-27.

63. Allman, J.M. (1999). Evolving brains. Scientific American Library Series, No. 68. New York: Scientific American Library.

64. Hauser, M., and Carey, S. (1998). Building a cognitive creature from a set of primitives: Evolutionary and developmental insights. In Cummins, D., and Allen, C. (eds.), The Evolution of the Mind (pp. 51-106). New York: Oxford University Press.

65. Funnell, M.G., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (2000). Right hemisphere deficits in reasoning processes. Cognitive Neuroscience Society Abstracts Supplements 12: 110.

66. Rilling, J.K., and Insel, T.R. (1999). Differential expansion of neural projection systems in primate brain evolution. NeuroReport 10: 1453-59.

67. Rizzolatti, G., Fadiga, L., Gallese, V., and Fogassi, L. (1996). Premotor cortex and the recognition of motor actions. Cognitive Brain Research 3: 131-41.

68. Rizzolatti, G. (1998). Mirror neurons. In Gazzaniga, M.S., and Altman, J.S. (eds.), Brain and Mind: Evolutionary Perspectives (pp. 102-10). HFSP workshop reports 5. Strasbourg: Human Frontier Science Program.

69. Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness. An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

70. Watanabe, H., et al. (2004). DNA sequence and comparative analysis of chimpanzee chromosome 22. Nature 429: 382-88.

71. Vargha-Khadem, F., et al. (1995). Praxic and nonverbal cognitive deficits in a large family with a genetically transmitted speech and language disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 92: 930-33.

72. Fisher, S.E., et al. (1998). Localization of a gene implicated in a severe speech and language disorder. Nature Genetics 18: 168-70.

73. Lai, C.S., et al. (2001). A novel forkhead-domain gene is mutated in a severe speech and language disorder. Nature 413: 519-23.

74. Shu, W., et al. (2001). Characterization of a new subfamily of winged-helix/forkhead (Fox) genes that are expressed in the lung and act as transcriptional repressors. Journal of Biological Chemistry 276: 27488-97.

75. Enard, W., et al. (2002). Molecular evolution of FOXP2, a gene involved in speech and language. Nature 418: 869-72.

76. Fisher, S.E. (2005). Dissection of molecular mechanisms underlying speech and language disorders. Applied Psycholinguistics 26: 111-28.

77. Caceres, M., et al. (2003). Elevated gene expression levels distinguish human from non-human primate brains. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100: 13030-35.

78. Bystron, I., Rakic, P., Molnár, Z., and Blakemore, C. (2006). The first neurons of the human cerebral cortex. Nature Neuroscience 9: 880-86.

Chapter 2: WOULD A CHIMP MAKE A GOOD DATE?

1. Evans, E.P. (1906). The Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals. New York: E.P. Dutton.

2. International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. (2001). Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature 409: 860-921; Errata 411: 720; 412: 565.

3. Venter, J.C., et al. (2001). The sequence of the human genome. Science 291: 1304-51. Erratum 292: 1838.

4. Watanabe, H., et al. (2004). DNA sequence and comparative analysis of chimpanzee chromosome 22. Nature 429: 382-438.

5. Provine, R. (2004). Laughing, tickling, and the evolution of speech and self. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 13: 215-18.

6. Benes, F.M. (1998). Brain development, VII: Human brain growth spans decades. American Journal of Psychiatry 155:1489.

7. Wikipedia.

8. Markl, H. (1985). Manipulation, modulation, information, cognition: Some of the riddles of communication. In Holldobler, B., and Lindauer, M. (eds.), Experimental Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology (pp. 163-94). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.

9. Povinelli, D.J. (2004). Behind the ape’s appearance: Escaping anthropocentrism in the study of other minds. Daedalus: The Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 133 (Winter).

10. Povinelli, D.J., and Bering, J.M. (2002). The mentality of apes revisited. Current Directions in Psychological Science 11: 115-19.

11. Holmes, J. (1978). The Farmer’s Dog. London: Popular Dogs.

12. Leslie, A.M. (1987). Pretense and representation: The origins of “theory of mind.” Psychological Review 94: 412-26.

13. Bloom. P., and German, T. (2000). Two reasons to abandon the false belief task as a test of theory of mind. Cognition 77: B25-B31.

14. Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

15. Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A.M., and Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a theory of mind? Cognition 21: 37-46.

16. Heyes, C.M. (1998). Theory of mind in nonhuman primates. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21: 101-34.

17. Povinelli, D.J., and Vonk, J. (2004). We don’t need a microscope to explore the chimpanzee’s mind. Mind & Language 19: 1-28.

18. Tomasello, M., Call, J., and Hare, B. (2003). Chimpanzees versus humans: It’s not that simple. Trends in Cognitive Science 7: 239-40.

19. White, A., and Byrne, R. (1988). Tactical deception in primates. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11: 233-44.

20. Hare, B., Call, J., Agnetta, B., and Tomasello, M. (2000). Chimpanzees know what conspecifics do and do not see. Animal Behaviour 59: 771-85.

21. Call, J., and Tomasello, M. (1998). Distinguishing intentional from accidental actions in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), and human children (Homo sapiens). Journal of Comparative Psychology 112: 192-206.

22. Hare, B., and Tomasello, M. (2004). Chimpanzees are more skilful in competitive than in cooperative cognitive tasks. Animal Behaviour 68: 571-81.

23. Melis, A., Hare, B., and Tomasello, M. (2006). Chimpanzees recruit the best collaborators. Science 313: 1297-1300.

24. Bloom, P., and German, T. (2000). Two reasons to abandon the false belief task as a test of theory of mind. Cognition 77: B25-B31.

25. Call, J., and Tomasello, M. (1999). A nonverbal false belief task: The performance of children and great apes. Child Development 70: 381-95.

26. Onishi, K.H., and Baillargeon, R. (2005). Do 15-month-old infants understand false beliefs? Science 308: 255-58.

27. Wellman, H.M., Cross, D., and Watson, J. (2001). Meta-analysis of theory of mind development: The truth about false-belief. Child Development 72: 655-84.

28. Gopnik, A. (1993). How we know our minds: The illusion of first-person knowledge of intentionality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16: 1-14.

29. Leslie, A.M., Friedman, O., and German, T.P. (2004). Core mechanisms in “theory of mind.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 8: 528-33.

30. Leslie, A.M., German, T.P., and Polizzi, P. (2005). Belief-desire reasoning as a process of selection. Cognitive Psychology 50: 45-85.

31. German, T.P., and Leslie, A.M. (2001). Children’s inferences from “knowing” to “pretending” and “believing.” British Journal of Developmental Psychology 19: 59-83.

32. German, T.P., and Leslie, A.M. (2004). No (social) construction without (meta) representation: Modular mechanisms as the basis for the acquisition of an understanding of mind. Behavioral and Brain Sciences27:106-7.

33. Tomasello, M., Call, J., and Hare, B. (2003). Chimpanzees understand psychological states—the question is which ones and to what extent. Trends in Cognitive Science 7: 154-56.

34. Povinelli, D.J., Bering, J.M., and Giambrone, S. (2000). Toward a science of other minds: Escaping the argument by analogy. Cognitive Science 24: 509-41.

35. Mulcahy, N., and Call, J. (2006). Apes save tools for future use. Science 312: 1038-40.

36. Anderson, S.R. (2004). A telling difference. Natural History 113 (November): 38-43.

37. Chomsky, N. (1980). Human language and other semiotic systems. In Sebeokand, T.A., and Umiker-Sebeok, J. (eds.), Speaking of Apes: A Critical Anthology of Two-Way Communication with Man (pp. 429-40). New York: Plenum Press.

38. Savage-Rumbaugh, S., and Lewin, R. (1994). Kanzi: The Ape at the Brink of the Human Mind. New York: Wiley.

39. Savage-Rumbaugh, S., Romski, M.A., Hopkins, W.D., and Sevcik, R.A. (1988). Symbol acquisition and use by Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus, and Homo sapiens. In Heltne, P.G., and Marquandt, L.A. (eds.), Understanding Chimpanzees (pp. 266-95). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

40. Seyfarth, R.M., Cheney, D.L., and Marler, P. (1980). Vervet monkey alarm calls: Semantic communication in a free-ranging primate. Animal Behaviour 28: 1070-94.

41. Premack, D. (1972). Concordant preferences as a precondition for affective but not for symbolic communication (or how to do experimental anthropology). Cognition 1: 251-64.

42. Seyfarth, R.M., and Cheney, D.L. (2003). Meaning and emotion in animal vocalizations. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1000: 32-55.

43. Seyfarth, R.M., and Cheney, D.L. (2003). Signalers and receivers in animal communication. Annual Review of Psychology 54: 145-73.

44. Fitch, W.T., Neubauer, J., Herzel, H. (2002). Calls out of chaos: The adaptive significance of nonlinear phenomena in mammalian vocal production. Animal Behaviour 63: 407-18.

45. Mitani, J., and Nishida, T. (1993). Contexts and social correlates of long-distance calling by male chimpanzees. Animal Behaviour 45: 735-46.

46. Corballis, M.C. (1999). The gestural origins of language. American Scientist 87: 138-45.

47. Rizzolatti, G., and Arbib, M.A. (1998). Language within our grasp. Trends in Neurosciences 21: 188-94.

48. Hopkins, W.D., and Cantero, M. (2003). From hand to mouth in the evolution of language: The influence of vocal behavior on lateralized hand use in manual gestures by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Developmental Science 6: 55-61.

49. Meguerditchian, A., and Vauclair, J. (2006). Baboons communicate with their right hand. Behavioral Brain Research 171: 170-74.

50. Iverson, J.M., and Goldin-Meadow, S. (1998). Why people gesture when they speak. Nature 396: 228.

51. Senghas, A. (1995). The development of Nicaraguan sign language via the language acquisition process. In MacLaughlin, D., and McEwen, S. (eds.), Proceedings of the 19th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp. 543-52). Boston: Cascadilla Press.

52. Neville, H.J., Bavalier, D., Corina, D., Rauschecker, J., Karni, A., Lalwani, A., Braun, A., Clark, V., Jezzard, P., and Turner, R. (1998). Cerebral organization for language in deaf and hearing subjects: Biological constraints and effects of experience. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95: 922-29.

53. Rizzolatti, G., Fogassi, L., and Gallese, V. (2004). Cortical mechanisms subserving object grasping, action understanding, and imitation. In Gazzaniga, M.S. (ed.), The Cognitive Neurosciences, vol. 3 (pp. 427-40). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

54. Kurata, K., and Tanji, J. (1986). Premotor cortex neurons in macaques: Activity before distal and proximal forelimb movements. Journal of Neuroscience 6: 403-11.

55. Rizzolatti, G., et al. (1988). Functional organization of inferior area 6 in the macaque monkey, II: Area F5 and the control of distal movements. Experimental Brain Research 71: 491-507.

56. Gentillucci, M., et al. (1988). Functional organization of inferior area 6 in the macaque monkey, I: Somatotopy and the control of proximal movements. Experimental Brain Research 71: 475-90.

57. Hast, M.H., et al. (1974). Cortical motor representation of the laryngeal muscles in Macaca mulatta. Brain Research 73: 229-40.

58. For a review, see: Rizzolatti, G., Fogassi, L., and Gallese, V. (2001). Neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the understanding and imitation of action. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2: 661-70.

59. Goodall, J. (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University.

60. Crockford, C., and Boesch, C. (2003). Context-specific calls in wild chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus: Analysis of barks. Animal Behaviour 66: 115-25.

61. Barzini, L. (1964). The Italians. New York: Atheneum.

62. LeDoux, J.E. (2000). Emotion circuits in the brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience 23: 155-84.

63. LeDoux, J.E. (2003). The self: Clues from the brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1001: 295-304.

64. Wrangham, R., and Peterson, D. (1996). Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

65. McPhee, J. (1984). La Place de la Concorde Suisse. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

66. Damasio, A.R. (1994). Descartes’ Error. New York: Putnam.

67. Ridley, M. (1993). The Red Queen (p. 244). New York: Macmillan.

Chapter 3: BIG BRAINS AND EXPANDING SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS

1. Roes, F. (1998). A conversation with George C. Williams. Natural History 107 (May): 10-13.

2. Hamilton, W.D. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behaviour, I and II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7: 1-16 and 17-52.

3. Wilson, D.S., and Wilson, E.O. (2008). Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology. Quarterly Review of Biology, in press.

4. Trivers, R. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46: 35-37.

5. Tooby, J., Cosmides, L., and Barrett, H.C. (2005). Resolving the debate on innate ideas: Learnability constraints and the evolved interpenetration of motivational and conceptual functions. In Carruthers, P., Laurence, S., and Stich, S. (eds.), The Innate Mind: Structure and Content. New York: Oxford University Press.

6. Trivers, R.L., and Willard, D. (1973). Natural selection of parental ability to vary the sex ratio. Science 7: 90-92.

7. Clutton-Brock, T.H., and Vincent, A.C.J. (1991). Sexual selection and the potential reproductive rates of males and females. Nature 351: 58-60.

8. Clutton-Brock, T.H. (1989) Mammalian mating systems. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 236: 339-72.

9. Clutton-Brock, T.H. (1991). The Evolution of Parental Care. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

10. Trivers, R.L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In Campbell, B. (ed.), Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man 1871-1971 (pp. 136-79). Chicago: Aldine.

11. Geary, D.C. (2004). The Origin of Mind. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

12. Jerrison, H.J. (1973). Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence. New York: Academic Press.

13. Wynn, T. (1988). Tools and the evolution of human intelligence. In Byrne, W.B., and White, A. (eds.), Machiavellian Intelligence. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

14. Pinker, S. (1997). How the Mind Works (p. 195). New York: W.W. Norton.

15. Wrangham, R.W., and Conklin-Brittain, N. (2003). Cooking as a biological trait. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology: Part A 136: 35-46.

16. Boback, S.M., Cox, C.L., Ott, B.D., Carmody, R., Wrangham, R.W., and Secor, S.M. (2007). Cooking and grinding reduces the cost of meat digestion. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology: Part A 148: 651-56.

17. Lucas, P. (2004). Dental Functional Morphology: How Teeth Work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

18. Oka, K., Sakuarae, A., Fujise, T., Yoshimatsu, H., Sakata, T., and Nakata, M. (2003). Food texture differences affect energy metabolism in rats. Journal of Dental Research 82: 491-94.

19. Broadhurst, C.L., Wang, Y., Crawford, M.A., Cunnane, S.C., Parkington, J.E., and Schmidt, W.F. (2002). Brain-specific lipids from marine, lacustrine, or terrestrial food resources: Potential impact on early African Homo sapiens. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 131B: 653-73.

20. Crawford, M.A., Bloom, M., Broadhurst, C.L., Schmidt, W.F., Cunnane, S.C., Galli, C., Gehbremeskel, K., Linseisen, F., Lloyd-Smith, J., and Parkington, J. (1999). Evidence for the unique function of docosahexaenoic acid during the evolution of the modern hominid brain. Lipids 34 Suppl: S39-47.

21. Broadhurst, C.L., Cunnane, S.C., and Crawford, M.A. (1998). Rift Valley lake fish and shellfish provided brain-specific nutrition for early Homo. British Journal of Nutrition 79: 3-21.

22. Carlson, B.A., and Kingston, J.D. (2007). Docosahexaenoic acid, the aquatic diet, and hominid encephalization: Difficulties in establishing evolutionary links. American Journal of Human Biology 19: 132-41.

23. Byrne, R.W., and Corp, N. (2004). Neocortex size predicts deception rate in primates. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 271: 1693-99.

24. Jolly, A. (1966). Lemur social behaviour and primate intelligence. Science 153: 501-6.

25. Humphrey, N.K. (1976). The social function of intellect. In Bateson, P.P.G., and Hinde, R.A. (eds.), Growing Points in Ethology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

26. Byrne, R.B., and Whiten, A. (1988). Machiavellian Intelligence. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

27. Alexander, R.D. (1990). How Did Humans Evolve? Reflections on the Uniquely Unique Species. Ann Arbor: Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan Special Publication No. 1.

28. Dunbar, R.I.M. (1998). The social brain hypothesis. Evolutionary Anthropology 6: 178-90.

29. Sawaguchi, T., and Kudo, H. (1990). Neocortical development and social structure in primates. Primate 31: 283-90.

30. Dunbar, R.I.M. (1992). Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates. Journal of Human Evolution 22: 469-93.

31. Kudo, H., and Dunbar, R.I.M. (2001). Neocortex size and social network size in primates. Animal Behaviour 62: 711-22.

32. Pawlowski, B.P., Lowen, C.B., and Dunbar, R.I.M. (1998). Neocortex size, social skills and mating success in primates. Behaviour 135: 357-68.

33. Lewis, K. (2001). A comparative study of primate play behaviour: Implications for the study of cognition. Folia Primatica 71: 417-21.

34. Dunbar, R.I.M. (2003). The social brain: Mind, language, and society in evolutionary perspective. Annual Review of Anthropology 32: 163-81.

35. Hill, R.A., and Dunbar, R.I.M. (2003). Social network size in humans. Human Nature 14: 53-72.

36. Dunbar, R.I.M. (1996). Grooming, Gossip and the Evolution of Language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

37. Ben-Ze’ev, A. (1994). The vindication of gossip. In Goodman, R.F., and Ben-Ze’ev, A. (eds.), Good Gossip (pp. 11-24). Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.

38. Iwamoto, T., and Dunbar, R.I.M. (1983). Thermoregulation, habitat quality and the behavioural ecology of gelada baboons. Journal of Animal Ecology 52: 357-66.

39. Dunbar, R.I.M. (1993). Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16: 681-735.

40. Enquist, M., and Leimar, O. (1993). The evolution of cooperation in mobile organisms. Animal Behaviour 45: 747-57.

41. Kniffin, K., and Wilson, D. (2005). Utilities of gossip across organizational levels. Human Nature 16 (Autumn): 278-92.

42. Emler, N. (1994). Gossip, reputation and adaptation. In Goodman, R.F., and Ben-Ze’ev, A. (eds.), Good Gossip (pp. 117-38). Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.

43. Taylor, G. (1994). Gossip as moral talk. In Goodman, R.F., and Ben-Ze’ev, A. (eds.), Good Gossip (pp. 34-46). Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.

44. Ayim, M. (1994). Knowledge through the grapevine: Gossip as inquiry. In Goodman, R.F., and Ben-Ze’ev., A. (eds.), Good Gossip (pp. 85-99). Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.

45. Schoeman, F. (1994). Gossip and privacy. In Goodman, R.F., and Ben-Ze’ev, A. (eds.), Good Gossip (pp. 72-84). Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.

46. Jaeger, M.E., Skleder, A., Rind, B., and Rosnow, R.L. (1994). Gossip, gossipers and gossipees. In Goodman, R.F., and Ben-Ze’ev, A. (eds.), Good Gossip (pp. 154-68). Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.

47. Haidt, J. (2006). The Happiness Hypothesis. New York: Basic Books.

48. Dunbar, R.I.M. (1996). Grooming, Gossip and the Evolution of Language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

49. Brown, D.E. (1991). Human Universals. New York: McGraw-Hill.

50. Cosmides, L. (2001). El Mercurio, October 28.

51. Cosmides, L., and Tooby, J. (2004). Social exchange: The evolutionary design of a neurocognitive system. In Gazzaniga, M.S. (ed.), Cognitive Neurosciences, vol. 3 (pp. 1295-1308). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

52. Stone, V.E., Cosmides, L., Tooby, J., Kroll, N., and Knight, R.T. (2002). Selective impairment of reasoning about social exchange in a patient with bilateral limbic system damage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99: 11531-36.

53. Brosnan, S.F., and de Waal, F.B.M. (2003). Monkeys reject unequal pay. Nature 425: 297-99.

54. Hauser, M.D. (2000). Wild Minds: What Animals Really Think. New York: Henry Holt.

55. Chiappe, D. (2004). Cheaters are looked at longer and remembered better than cooperators in social exchange situations. Evolutionary Psychology 2: 108-20.

56. Barclay, P. (2006). Reputational benefits for altruistic behavior. Evolution and Human Behavior 27: 325-44.

57. Ristau, C. (1991). Aspects of the cognitive ethology of an injury-feigning bird, the piping plover. In Ristau, C.A. (ed.), Cognitive Ethology: The Minds of Other Animals. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

58. Hare, B., Call, J., and Tomasello, M. (2006). Chimpanzees deceive a human by hiding. Cognition 101: 495-514.

59. Dangerfield, R., in Caddyshack, Orion Pictures, 1980.

60. Tyler, J.M., and Feldman, R.S. (2004). Truth, lies, and self-presentation: How gender and anticipated future interaction relate to deceptive behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 34: 2602-15.

61. Gilovich, T. (1991). How We Know What Isn’t So. New York: Macmillan.

62. Morton, J., and Johnson, M. (1991). CONSPEC and CONLEARN: A two-process theory of infant face recognition. Psychology Reviews 98: 164-81.

63. Nelson, C.A. (1987). The recognition of facial expressions in the first two years of life: Mechanisms and development. Child Development 58: 899-909.

64. Parr, L.A., Winslow, J.T., Hopkins, W.D., and de Waal, F.B.M. (2000). Recognizing facial cues: Individual recognition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Journal of Comparative Psychology 114: 47-60.

65. Burrows, A.M., Waller, B.M., Parr, L.A., and Bonar, C.J. (2006). Muscles of facial expression in the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes): Descriptive, ecological and phylogenetic contexts. Journal of Anatomy 208: 153-67.

66. Parr, L.A. (2001). Cognitive and physiological markers of emotional awareness in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. Animal Cognition 4: 223-29.

67. For a review, see: Ekman, P. (1999) Facial expressions. In Dalgleish, T., and Power, T. (eds.), The Handbook of Cognition and Emotion (pp. 301-20). Sussex, UK: Wiley.

68. Ekman, P. (2002). Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Marriage, and Politics, 3rd ed. New York: W.W. Norton.

69. Ekman, P., Friesen, W.V., and O’Sullivan, M. (1988). Smiles when lying. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54: 414-20.

70. Ekman, P., Friesen, W.V., and Scherer, K. (1976). Body movement and voice pitch in deceptive interaction. Semiotica 16: 23-27.

71. Ekman, P. (2004). Face to face: The science of reading faces. Conversations with History (January 14). http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/conversations/e.html.

72. De Becker, G. (1997). The Gift of Fear. New York: Dell.

73. Batson, C.D., Thompson, E.R., Seuferling, G., Whitney, H., and Strongman, J.A. (1999). Moral hypocrisy: Appearing moral to oneself without being so. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77: 525-37.

74. Batson, C.D., Thompson, E.R., and Chen, H. (2002). Moral hypocrisy: Addressing some alternatives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83: 330-39.

75. Miller, G. (2000). The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature. New York: Doubleday.

76. Burling, R. (1986). The selective advantage of complex language. Ethology and Sociobiology 7: 1-16.

77. Smith, P.K. (1982). Does play matter? Functional and evolutionary aspects of animal and human play. Behavioral Brain Science 5: 139-84.

78. Byers, J.A., and Walker, C. (1995). Refining the motor training hypothesis for the evolution of play. American Naturalist 146: 25-40.

79. Dolhinow, P. (1999). Play: A critical process in the developmental system. In Dolhinow, P., and Fuentes, A. (eds.), The Non-Human Primates (pp. 231-36). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing.

80. Pellis, S.M., and Iwaniuk, A.N. (1999). The problem of adult play-fighting: A comparative analysis of play and courtship in primates. Ethology 105: 783-806.

81. Pellis, S.M., and Iwaniuk, A.N. (2000). Adult-adult play in primates: Comparative analyses of its origin, distribution and evolution. Ethology 106: 1083-1104.

82. Špinka, M., Newberry, R.C., and Bekoff, M. (2001). Mammalian play: Training for the unexpected. Quarterly Review of Biology 76: 141-67.

83. Palagi, E., Cordoni, G., and Borgognini Tarli, S.M. (2004). Immediate and delayed benefits of play behaviour: New evidence from chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Ethology 110: 949-62.

84. Keverne, E.B., Martensz, N.D., and Tuite, B. (1989). Beta-endorphin concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid of monkeys are influenced by grooming relationships. Psychoneuroendocrinology 14: 155-61.

85. Henzi, S.P., and Barrett, L. (1999). The value of grooming to female primates. Primates 40: 47-59.

Chapter 4: THE MORAL COMPASS WITHIN

1. Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review 108: 814-34.

2. Westermarck, E.A. (1891). The History of Human Marriage. New York: Macmillan.

3. Shepher, J. (1983). Incest: A Biosocial View. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

4. Wolf, A.P. (1966). Childhood association and sexual attraction: A further test of the Westermarck hypothesis. American Anthropologist 70: 864-74.

5. Lieberman, D., Tooby, J., and Cosmides, L. (2002). Does morality have a biological basis? An empirical test of the factors governing moral sentiments relating to incest. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 270: 819-26.

6. Nunez, M., and Harris, P. (1998). Psychological and deontic concepts: Separate domains or intimate connection? Mind and Language 13: 153-70.

7. Call, J., and Tomasello, M. (1998). Distinguishing intentional from accidental actions in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), and human children (Homo sapiens). Journal of Comparative Psychology 112: 192-206.

8. Fiddick, L. (2004). Domains of deontic reasoning: Resolving the discrepancy between the cognitive and moral reasoning literature. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 5A: 447-74.

9. Free Soil Union. Ludlow, VT, September 14, 1848.

10. Macmillan, M., www.deakin.edu.au/hmnbs/psychology/gagepage/Pgstory.php.

11. Damasio, A.J. (1994). Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York: Avon Books.

12. Bargh, J.A., Chaiken, S., Raymond, P., and Hymes, C. (1996). The automatic evaluation effect: Unconditionally automatic activation with a pronunciation task. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 32: 185-210.

13. Bargh, J.A., and Chartrand, T.L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist 54: 462-79.

14. Haselton, M.G., and Buss, D.M. (2000). Error management theory: A new perspective on biases in cross-sex mind reading. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78: 81-91.

15. Hansen, C.H., and Hansen, R.D. (1988). Finding the face in the crowd: An anger superiority effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54: 917-24.

16. Rozin, P., and Royzman, E.B. (2001). Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion. Personality and Social Psychology Review 5: 296-320.

17. Cacioppo, J.T., Gardner, W.L., and Berntson, G.G. (1999). The affect system has parallel and integrative processing components: Form follows function. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76: 839-55.

18. Chartrand, T.L, and Bargh, J.A. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76: 893-910.

19. Ambady, M., and Rosenthal, R. (1992). Thin slices of expressive behavior as predictors of interpersonal consequences: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 111: 256-74.

20. Albright, L., Kenny, D.A., and Malloy, T.E. (1988). Consensus in personality judgments at zero acquaintance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55: 387-95.

21. Chailen, S. (1980). Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus message cures in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39: 752-66.

22. Cacioppo, J.T., Priester, J.R., and Berntson, G.G. (1993). Rudimentary determinants of attitudes, II: Arm flexion and extension have differential effects on attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65: 5-17.

23. Chen, M., and Bargh, J.A. (1999). Nonconscious approach and avoidance: Behavioral consequences of the automatic evaluation effect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 25: 215-24.

24. Thomson, J.J. (1986). Rights, Restitution, and Risk: Essays in Moral Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

25. Greene, J., et al. (2001). An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science 293: 2105-8.

26. Hauser, M. (2006). Moral Minds. New York: HarperCollins.

27. Borg, J.S., Hynes, C., Horn, J.V., Grafton, S., and Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2006). Consequences, action and intention as factors in moral judgments: An fMRI investigation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 18: 803-17.

28. Amati, D., and Shallice, T. (2007). On the emergence of modern humans. Cognition 103: 358-85.

29. Haidt, J., and Joseph, C. (2004). Intuitive ethics: How innately prepared intuitions generate culturally variable virtues. Daedalus 138 (Autumn): 55-66.

30. Haidt, J., and Bjorklund, F. (in press). Social intuitionists answer six questions about moral psychology. In Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (ed.), Moral Psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

31. Shweder, R.A., Much, N.C., Mahapatra, M., and Park, L. (1997). The “big three” of morality (autonomy, community, and divinity), and the “big three” explanations of suffering. In Brandt, A., and Rozin, P. (eds.), Morality and Health (pp. 119-69). New York: Routledge.

32. Haidt, J. (2003). The moral emotions. In Davidson, R.J., Scherer, K.R., and Goldsmith, H.H. (eds.), Handbook of Affective Sciences (pp. 852-70). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

33. Frank, R.H. (1987). If Homo economicus could choose his own utility function, would he want one with a conscience? American Economic Review 77: 593-604.

34. Kunz, P.R., and Woolcott, M. (1976). Season’s greetings: From my status to yours. Social Science Research 5: 269-78.

35. Hoffman, E., McCabe, K., Shachat, J., and Smith, V. (1994). Preferences, property rights and anonymity in bargaining games. Games and Economic Behavior 7: 346-80.

36. Hoffman, E., McCabe, K., and Smith, V. (1996). Social distance and other-regarding behavior in dictator games. American Economic Review 86: 653-60.

37. McCabe, K., Rassenti, S., and Smith, V. (1996). Game theory and reciprocity in some extensive form experimental games. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 93: 13421-28.

38. Henrich, J., et al. (2005). “Economic man” in cross-cultural perspective: Behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 28: 795-815.

39. Kurzban, R., Tooby, J., and Cosmides, L. (2001). Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98:15387-92.

40. Ridley, M. (1993). The Red Queen. New York: Macmillan.

41. Haidt, J., Rozin, P., McCauley, C., and Imada, S. (1997). Body, psyche, and culture: The relationship of disgust to morality. Psychology and Developing Societies 9: 107-31.

42. Reported in: Haidt, J., and Bjorklund, F. (2008). Social intuitionists answer six questions about moral psychology. In Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (ed.), Moral Psychology, vol. 3 (in press).

43. Balzac, H. de (1898). Modeste Mignon. Trans. Bell, C. Philadelphia: Gebbie Publishing.

44. Perkins, D.N., Farady, M., and Bushey, B. (1991). Everyday reasoning and the roots of intelligence. In Voss, J.F., Perkins, D.N., and Segal, J.W. (eds.), Informal Reasoning and Education. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

45. Kuhn, D. (1991). The Skills of Argument. New York: Cambridge University Press.

46. Kuhn, D. (2001). How do people know? Psychological Science 12: 1-8.

47. Kuhn, D., and Felton, M. (2000). Developing appreciation of the relevance of evidence to argument. Paper presented at the Winter Conference on Discourse, Text, and Cognition, Jackson Hole, WY.

48. Wright, R. (1994). The Moral Animal. New York: Random House/Pantheon.

49. Asch, S. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs 70: 1-70.

50. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67: 371-78.

51. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View. New York: Harper & Row.

52. Baumeister, R.F., and Newman, L.S. (1994). Self-regulation of cognitive inference and decision processes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20: 3-19.

53. Hirschi, T., and Hindelang, M.F. (1977). Intelligence and delinquency: A revisionist view. American Sociological Review 42: 571-87.

54. Blasi, A. (1980). Bridging moral cognition and moral action: A critical review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin 88: 1-45.

55. Shoda, Y., Mischel, W., and Peake, P.K. (1990). Predicting adolescent cognitive and self-regulatory behavior competencies from preschool delay of gratification: Identifying diagnostic conditions. Developmental Psychology 26: 978-86.

56. Metcalfe, J., and Mischel, W. (1999). A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: Dynamics of willpower. Psychological Review 106: 3-19.

57. Harpur, T.J., and Hare, R.D. (1994). The assessment of psychopathy as a function of age. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103: 604-9.

58. Raine, A. (1998). Antisocial behavior and psychophysiology: A biosocial perspective and a prefrontal dysfunction hypothesis. In Stroff, D., Brieling, J., and Maser, J. (eds.), Handbook of Antisocial Behavior (pp. 289-304). New York: Wiley.

59. Blair, R.J. (1995). A cognitive developmental approach to morality: Investigating the psychopath. Cognition 57: 1-29.

60. Hare, R.D., and Quinn, M.J. (1971). Psychopathy and autonomic conditioning. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 77: 223-35.

61. Blair, R.J., Jones, L., Clark, F., and Smith, M. (1997). The psychopathic individual: A lack of responsiveness to distress cues? Psychophysiology 342: 192-98.

62. Hart, D., and Fegley, S. (1995). Prosocial behavior and caring in adolescence: Relations to self-understanding and social judgment. Child Development 66: 1346-59.

63. Colby, A., and Damon, W. (1992). Some Do Care: Contemporary Lives of Moral Commitment. New York: Free Press.

64. Matsuba, K.M., and Walker, L.J. (2004). Extraordinary moral commitment: Young adults involved in social organizations. Journal of Personality 72: 413-36.

65. Oliner, S., and Oliner, P.M. (1988). The Altruistic Personality: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe. New York: Free Press.

66. Boyer, P. (2003). Religious thought and behavior as by-products of brain function. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7: 119-24.

67. Barrett, J.L., and Keil, F.C. (1996). Conceptualizing a nonnatural entity: Anthropomorphism in God concepts. Cognitive Psychology 31: 219-47.

68. Boyer, P. (2004). Why is religion natural? Skeptical Inquirer 28, no. 2 (March/April).

69. Wilson, D.S. (2007). Why Richard Dawkins is wrong about religion. eSkeptic July 4, www.eskeptic.com/eskeptic/07-07-04.html.

70. Ridley, M. (1996). The Origins of Virtue. New York: Penguin.

71. Ostrom, E., Walker, J., and Gardner, T. (1992). Covenants without a sword: Self-governance is possible. American Political Science Review 886: 404-17.

Chapter 5: I FEEL YOUR PAIN

1. Pegna, A.J., Khateb, A., Lazeyras, F., and Seghier, M.L. (2004). Discriminating emotional faces without primary visual cortices involves the right amygdala. Nature Neuroscience 8: 24-25.

2. Goldman, A.I., and Sripada, C.S. (2005). Simulationist models of face-based emotion recognition. Cognition 94: 193-213.

3. Gallese, V. (2003). The manifold nature of interpersonal relations: The quest for a common mechanism. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 358: 517-28.

4. Meltzoff, A.N., and Moore, M.K. (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science 198: 75-78.

5. For a review, see: Meltzoff, A.N., and Moore, M.K. (1997). Explaining facial imitation: A theoretical model. Early Development and Parenting 6: 179-92.

6. Meltzoff, A.N., and Moore, M.K. (1983). Newborn infants imitate adult facial gestures. Child Development 54: 702-9.

7. Meltzoff, A.N., and Moore, M.K. (1989). Imitation in newborn infants: Exploring the range of gestures imitated and the underlying mechanisms. Developmental Psychology 25: 954-62.

8. Meltzoff, A.N., and Decety, J. (2003). What imitation tells us about social cognition: A rapprochement between developmental psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 358: 491-500.

9. Legerstee, M. (1991). The role of person and object in eliciting early imitation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 5: 423-33.

10. For a review, see: Puce, A., and Perrett, D. (2005). Electrophysiology and brain imaging of biological motion. In Cacioppo, J.T., and Berntson, G.G. (eds.), Social Neuroscience (pp. 115-29). New York: Psychology Press.

11. Meltzoff, A.N., and Moore, M.K. (1994). Imitation, memory, and the representation of persons. Infant Behavior and Development 17: 83-99.

12. Meltzoff, A.N., and Moore, M.K. (1998). Object representation, identity, and the paradox of early permanence: Steps toward a new framework. Infant Behavior and Development 21: 210-35.

13. Nadel, J. (2002). Imitation and imitation recognition: Funcional use in preverbal infants and nonverbal children with autism. In Meltzoff, A., and Prinz, W. (eds.), The Imitative Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

14. de Waal, F. (2002). The Ape and the Sushi Master: Cultural Reflections of a Primatologist. New York: Basic Books.

15. Visalberghi, E., and Fragaszy, D.M. (1990). Do monkeys ape? In Parker, S.T., and Gibson, K.R. (eds.), Language and Intelligence in Monkeys and Apes (pp. 247-73). New York: Cambridge University Press.

16. Whiten, A., and Ham, R. (1992). On the nature and evolution of imitation in the animal kingdom: Reappraisal of a century of research. In Slater, P.J.B., Rosenblatt, J.S., Beer, C., and Milinski, M. (eds.), Advances in the Study of Behavior (pp. 239-83). New York: Academic Press.

17. Kumashiro, M., Ishibashi, H., Uchiyama, Y., Itakura, S., Murata, A., and Iriki, A. (2003). Natural imitation induced by joint attention in Japanese monkeys. International Journal of Psychophysiology 50: 81-99.

18. Zentall, T. (2006). Imitation: Definitions, evidence, and mechanisms. Animal Cognition 9: 335-53.

19. See review in: Bauer, B.B., and Harley, H. (2001). The mimetic dolphin. Behavior and Brain Science 24: 326-27. Commentary in: Rendell, L., and Whitehead, H. (2001). Culture in whales and dolphins. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24: 309-82.

20. Giles, H., and Powesland, P.F. (1975). Speech Style and Social Evaluation. London: Academic Press.

21. For a review, see: Chartrand, T., Maddux, W., and Lakin, J. (2005). Beyond the perception-behavior link: The ubiquitous utility and motivational moderators of nonconscious mimicry. In Hassin, T., Uleman, J.J., and Bargh, J.A. (eds.), Unintended Thoughts, vol. 2: The New Unconscious. New York: Oxford University Press.

22. Dimberg, U., Thunberg, M., and Elmehed, K. (2000). Unconscious facial reactions to emotional facial expressions. Psychological Science 11: 86-89.

23. Bavelas, J.B., Black, A., Chovil, N., Lemery, C., and Mullett, J. (1988). Form and function in motor mimicry: Topographic evidence that the primary function is communication. Human Communication Research 14: 275-300.

24. Cappella, J.M., and Panalp, S. (1981). Talk and silence sequences in informal conversations, III: Interspeaker influence. Human Communication Research 7: 117-32.

25. Van Baaren, R.B., Holland, R.W., Kawakami, K., and van Knippenberg, A. (2004). Mimicry and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science 15: 71-74.

26. Decety, J., and Jackson, P.L. (2004). The functional architecture of human empathy. Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews 3: 71-100.

27. Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J.T., and Rapson, R.L. (1993). Emotional contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Sciences 2: 96-99.

28. Gazzaniga, M.S., and Smylie, C.S. (1990). Hemispheric mechanisms controlling voluntary and spontaneous facial expressions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2: 239-45.

29. Damasio, A. (2003). Looking for Spinoza. New York: Harcourt.

30. Dondi, M., Simion, F., and Caltran, G. (1999). Can newborns discriminate between their own cry and the cry of another newborn infant? Developmental Psychology 35: 418-26.

31. Martin, G.B., and Clark, R.D. (1982). Distress crying in neonates: Species and peer specificity. Developmental Psychology 18: 3-9.

32. Neumann, R., and Strack, F. (2000). “Mood contagion”: The automatic transfer of mood between persons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79: 211-23.

33. Field, T. (1984). Early interactions between infants and their postpartum depressed mothers. Infant Behavior and Development 7: 517-22.

34. Field, T. (1985). Attachment as psychobiological attunement: Being on the same wavelength. In Reite, M., and Field, T. (eds.), Psychobiology of Attachment and Separation (pp. 415-54). New York: Academic Press.

35. Field, T., Healy, B., Goldstein, S., Perry, S., Bendell, D., Schanberg, S., Zimmerman, E.A., and Kuhn, C. (1988). Infants of depressed mothers show “depressed” behavior even with nondepressed adults. Child Development 59: 1569-79.

36. Cohn, J.F., Matias, R., Tronick, E.Z., Connell, D., and Lyons-Ruth, K. (1986). Face-to-face interactions of depressed mothers and their infants. In Tronick, E.Z., and Field, T. (eds.), Maternal Depression and Infant Disturbance (pp. 31-45). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

37. Penfield, W., and Faulk, M.E. (1955). The insula: Further observations on its function. Brain 78: 445-70.

38. Krolak-Salmon, P., Henaff, M.A., Isnard, J., Tallon-Baudry, C., Guenot, M., Vighetto, A., Bertrand, O., and Mauguiere, F. (2003). An attention modulated response to disgust in human ventral anterior insula. Annals of Neurology 53: 446-53.

39. Wicker, B., Keysers, C., Plailly, J., Royet, J.P., Gallese, V., and Rizzolatti, G. (2003). Both of us disgusted in my insula: The common neural basis of seeing and feeling disgust. Neuron 400: 655-64.

40. Singer, T., Seymour, B., O’Doherty, J., Kaube, H., Dolan, R.J., and Frithe, C.D. (2004). Empathy for pain involves the affective but no sensory components of pain. Science 303: 1157-62.

41. Jackson, P.L., Meltzoff, A.N., and Decety, J. (2005). How do we perceive the pain of others? A window into the neural processes involved in empathy. Neuroimage 24: 771-79.

42. Hutchison, W.D., Davis, K.D., Lozano, A.M., Tasker, R.R., and Dostrovsky, J.O. (1999). Pain-related neurons in the human cingulate cortex. Nature Neuroscience 2: 403-5.

43. Ekman, P., Levenson, R.W., and Freisen, W.V. (1983). Autonomic nervous system activity distinguishes among emotions. Science 221: 1208-10.

44. Ekman, P., and Davidson, R.J. (1993). Voluntary smiling changes regional brain activity. Psychological Science 4: 342-45.

45. Levenson, R.W., and Ruef, A.M. (1992). Empathy: A physiological substrate. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 663: 234-46.

46. Critchley, H.D., Wiens, S., Rotshtein, P., Öhman, A., and Dolan, R.J. (2004). Neural systems supporting interoceptive awareness. Nature Neuroscience 7: 189-95.

47. Craig, A.D. (2004). Human feelings: Why are some more aware than others? Trends in Cognitive Sciences 8: 239-41.

48. Calder, A.J., Keane, J., Manes, F., Antoun, N., and Young, A. (2000). Impaired recognition and experience of disgust following brain injury. Nature Neuroscience 3: 1077-78.

49. Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., and Damasio, A.R. (2003). Dissociable neural systems for recognizing emotions. Brain and Cognition 52: 61-69.

50. Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., and Damasio, A. (1994). Impaired recognition of emotion in facial expressions following bilateral damage to the human amygdala. Nature 372: 669-72.

51. Broks, P., et al. (1998). Face processing impairments after encephalitis: Amygdala damage and recognition of fear. Neuropsychologia 36: 59-70.

52. Adolphs, R., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., and Damasio, A.R. (1996). Cortical systems for the recognition of emotion in facial expressions. Journal of Neuroscience 16: 7678-87.

53. Adolphs, R., et al. (1999). Recognition of facial emotion in nine individuals with bilateral amygdala damage. Neuropsychologia 37: 1111-17.

54. Sprengelmeyer, R., et al. (1999). Knowing no fear. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 266: 2451-56.

55. Lawrence, A.D., Calder, A.J., McGowan, S.W., and Grasby, P.M. (2002). Selective disruption of the recognition of facial expressions of anger. NeuroReport 13: 881-84.

56. Meunier, M., Bachevalier, J., Murray, E.A., Málková, L., Mishkin, M. (1999). Effects of aspiration versus neurotoxic lesions of the amygdala on emotional responses in monkeys. European Journal of Neuroscience11: 4403-18.

57. Church, R.M. (1959). Emotional reactions of rats to the pain of others. Journal of Comparative and Physiologcal Psychology 52: 132-34.

58. Anderson, J.R., Myowa-Yamakoshi, M., and Matsuzawa, T. (2004). Contagious yawning in chimpanzees. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 27: 468-70.

59. Platek, S.M., Critton, S.R., Myers, T.E., and Gallup, G.G., Jr. (2003). Contagious yawning: The role of self-awareness and mental state attribution. Cognitive Brain Research 17:223-27.

60. Platek, S., Mohamed, F., and Gallup, G.G., Jr. (2005). Contagious yawning and the brain. Cognitive Brain Research 23: 448-53.

61. Kohler, E., Keysers, C., Umilta, M.A., Fogassi, L, Gallese, B., and Rizzolatti, G. (2002). Hearing sounds, understanding actions: Action representation in mirror neurons. Science 297: 846-48.

62. Iacoboni, M., Woods, R.P., Brass, M., Bekkering, H., Mazziotta, J.C., and Rizzolatti, G. (1999). Cortical mechanisms of human imitation. Science 286: 2526-28.

63. Buccino, G., Binkofski, F., Fink, G.R., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., Gallese, V., Seitz, R.J., Zilles, K., Rizzolatti, G., and Freund, H.J. (2005). Action observation activates premotor and parietal areas in a somatotopic manner: An fMRI study. In Cacioppo, J.T., and Berntson, G.G. (eds.), Social Neuroscience. New York: Psychology Press.

64. Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., Pavesi, G., and Rizzolatti, G. (1995). Motor facilitation during action observation: A magnetic stimulation study. Journal of Neurophysiology 73: 2608-11.

65. Rizzolatti, G., and Craighero, L. (2004). The mirror neuron system. Annual Review of Neuroscience 27: 169-92.

66. Buccino, G., Vogt, S., Ritzl, A., Fink, G.R., Zilles, K., Freund, H.J., and Rizzolatti, G. (2004). Neural circuits underlying imitation of hand action: An event-related fMRI study. Neuron 42: 323-34.

67. Iacoboni, M., Molnar-Szakacs, I., Gallese, V., Buccino, G., Mazziotta, J.C., and Rizzolatti, G. (2005). Grasping the intentions of others with one’s own mirror neuron system. Public Library of Science: Biology 3: 1-7.

68. Gallese, V., Keysers, C., and Rizzolatti, G. (2004). A unifying view of the basis of social cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 8: 396-403.

69. Oberman, L.M., Hubbard, E.M., McCleery, J.P., Altschuler, E.L., Ramachandran, V.S., and Pineda, J.A. (2005). EEG evidence for mirror neuron dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders. Cognitive Brain Research24: 190-98.

70. Dapretto, M., Davies, M.S., Pfeifer, J.H., Scott, A.A., Sigman, M., Bookheimer, S.Y., and Iacoboni, M. (2006). Understanding emotions in others: Mirror neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorder. Nature Neuroscience 9: 28-30.

71. Eastwood, C. (1973), from the movie Magnum Force. Burbank, CA: Malpaso Productions.

72. Calder, A.J., Keane, J., Cole, J., Campbell, R., and Young, A.W. (2000). Facial expression recognition by people with Mobius syndrome. Cognitive Neuropsychology 17: 73-87.

73. Danziger, N., Prkachin, K.M., and Willer, J.C. (2006). Is pain the price of empathy? The perception of others’ pain in patients with congenital insensitivity to pain. Brain 129: 2494-2507.

74. Hess, U., and Blairy, S. (2001). Facial mimicry and emotional contagion to dynamic facial expressions and their influence on decoding accuracy. International Journal of Psychophysiology 40: 129-41.

75. Lanzetta, J.T., and Englis, B.G. (1989). Expectations of cooperation and competition and their effects on observers’ vicarious emotional responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 33: 354-70.

76. Bourgeois, P., and Hess, U. (1999). Emotional reactions to political leaders’ facial displays: A replication. Psychophysiology 36: S36.

77. Balzac, H. de (1898). Modeste Mignon. Philadelphia: Gebbie Publishing.

78. Ochsner, K.N., Bunge, S.A., Gross, J.J., and Gabrieli, J.D.E. (2002). Rethinking feelings: An fMRI study of the cognitive regulation of emotion. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 14: 1215-29.

79. Canli, T., Desmond, J.E., Zhao, Z., Glover, G., and Gavrielli, J.D.E. (1998). Hemispheric asymmetry for emotional stimuli detected with fMRI. NeuroReport 9: 3233-39.

80. Gross, J.J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology 39: 281-91.

81. Uchno, B.N., Cacioppo, J.T., and Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K. (1996). The relationship between social support and physiological processes: A review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and implications for health. Psychological Bulletin 119: 488-531.

82. Butler, E.A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F.H., Smith, N.C., Erickson, E.A., and Gross, J.J. (2003). The social consequences of expressive suppression. Emotion 3: 48-67.

83. For a review, see: Niedenthal, P., Barsalou, L., Ric, F., and Krauth-Graub, S. (2005). Embodiment in the acquisition and use of emotion knowledge. In Barret, L., Niedenthal, P., and Winkielman, P. (eds.), Emotion and Consciousness. New York: Guilford Press.

84. Osaka, N., Osaka, M., Morishita, M., Kondo, H., and Fukuyama, H. (2004). A word expressing affective pain activates the anterior cingulate cortex in the human brain: An fMRI study. Behavioural Brain Research153: 123-27.

85. Meister, I.G., Krings, T., Foltys, H., Müller, M., Töpper, R., and Thron, A. (2004). Playing piano in the mind—an fMRI study on music imagery and performance in pianists. Cognitive Brain Research 19: 219-28.

86. Phelps, E., O’Conner, K., Gatenby, J., Grillon, C., Gore, J., and Davis, M. (2001). Activation of the left amygdala to a cognitive representation of fear. Nature Neuroscience 4: 437-41.

87. Repacholi, B.M., and Gopnik, A. (1997). Early reasoning about desires: Evidence from 14- and 18-month-olds. Developmental Psychology 33: 12-21.

88. Keysar, B., Lin, S., and Barr, D.J. (2003). Limits on theory of mind in adults. Cognition 89: 25-41.

89. Nickerson, R.S. (1999). How we know and sometimes misjudge what others know: Imputing one’s own knowledge to others. Psychological Bulletin 126: 737-59.

90. Vorauer, J.D., and Ross, M. (1999). Self-awareness and feeling transparent: Failing to suppress one’s self. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 35: 414-40.

91. Ruby, P., and Decety, J. (2001). Effect of subjective perspective taking during simulation of action: A PET investigation of agency. Nature Neuroscience 4: 546-50.

92. Ruby, P., and Decety, J. (2003). What you believe versus what you think they believe: A neuroimaging study of conceptual perspective taking. European Journal of Neuroscience 17: 2475-80.

93. Ruby, P., and Decety, J. (2004). How would you feel versus how do you think she would feel? A neuroimaging study of perspective taking with social emotions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16: 988-99.

94. Blanke, O., Ortigue, S., Landis, T., and Seeck, M. (2002). Neuropsychology: Stimulating illusory own-body perceptions. Nature 419: 269-70.

95. Blanke, O., and Arzy, S. (2005). The out-of-body experience: Disturbed self-processing at the temporo-parietal junction. Neuroscientist 11: 16-24.

96. Saxe, R., and Kanwisher, N. (2005). People thinking about thinking people: The role of the temporo-parietal junction in “theory of mind.” In Cacioppo, J.T., and Berntson, G.G. (eds.), Social Neuroscience. New York: Psychology Press.

97. Price, B.H., Daffner, K.R., Stowe, R.M., and Mesulam, M.M. (1990). The compartmental learning disabilities of early frontal lobe damage. Brain 113: 1383-93.

98. Anderson, S.W., Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., and Damasio, A.R. (1999). Impairment of social and moral behavior related to early damage in human prefrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience 2: 1032-37.

99. Jackson, P.L., Brunet, E., Meltzoff, A.N., and Decety, J. (2006). Empathy examined through the neural mechanisms involved in imagining how I feel versus how you feel pain. Neuropsychologia 44: 752-61.

100. Mitchell, J.P., Macrae, C.N., and Banaji, M.R. (2006). Dissociable medial prefrontal contributions to judgments of similar and dissimilar others. Neuron 50: 655-63.

101. Demoulin, S., Torres, R.R., Perez, A.R., Vaes, J., Paladino, M.P., Gaunt, R., Pozo, B.C., and Leyens, J.P. (2004). Emotional prejudice can lead to infra-humanisation. In Stroebe, W., and Hewstone, M. (eds.), European Review of Social Psychology (pp. 259-96). Hove, UK: Psychology Press.

102. Ames, D.R. (2004). Inside the mind reader’s tool kit: Projection and stereotyping in mental state inference. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87: 340-53.

103. Hare, B., Call, J., and Tomasello, M. (2006). Chimpanzees deceive a human competitor by hiding. Cognition 101: 495-514.

104. Hauser, M.D. (1990). Do chimpanzee copulatory calls incite male-male competition? Animal Behaviour 39: 596-97.

105. Watts, D., and Mitani, J. (2001). Boundary patrols and intergroup encounters in wild chimpanzees. Behaviour 138: 299-327.

106. Wilson, M., Hauser, M.D., and Wrangham, R. (2001). Does participation in intergroup conflict depend on numerical assessment, range location, or rank for wild chimpanzees? Animal Behaviour 61: 1203-16.

107. Parr, L.A. (2001). Cognitive and physiological markers of emotional awareness in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. Animal Cognition 4: 223-29.

108. Flombaum, J.I., and Santos, L.R. (2005). Rhesus monkeys attribute perceptions to others. Current Biology 15: 447-52.

109. Santos, L.R., Flombaum, J.I., and Phillips, W. (2007). The evolution of human mindreading: How nonhuman primates can inform social cognitive neuroscience. In Platek, S.M., Keenan, J.P., and Shackelford, T.K. (eds.), Cognitive Neuroscience. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.

110. Miklósi, A., Topál, J., and Csányi, V. (2004). Comparative social cognition: What can dogs teach us? Animal Behaviour 67: 995-1004.

111. For a review, see: Hare, B., and Tomasello, M. (2005). Human-like social skills in dogs? Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9: 439-44.

112. Belyaev, D. (1979). Destabilizing selection as a factor in domestication. Journal of Heredity 70: 301-8.

Chapter 6: WHAT’S UP WITH THE ARTS?

1. Dissanayake, E. (1988). What Is Art For? Seattle: University of Washington Press.

2. Pinker, S. (1997). How the Mind Works. New York: W.W. Norton.

3. Cela-Conde, C.C.J., Marty, G., Maestu, F., Ortiz, T., Munar, E., Fernandez, A., Roca, M., Rossello, J., and Quesney, F. (2004). Activation of the prefrontal cortex in the human visual aesthetic perception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101: 6321-25.

4. American Heritage College Dictionary, 3rd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

5. Aiken, N.E. (1998). The Biological Origins of Art. Westport, CT: Praeger.

6. Kawabata, H., and Zeki, S. (2003). Neural correlates of beauty. Journal of Neurophysiology 91: 1699-1705.

7. Lindgaard, G., and Whitfield, T.W. (2004). Integrating aesthetics within an evolutionary and psychological framework. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 5: 73-90.

8. Norman, D.A. (2004). Introduction to this special section on beauty, goodness, and usability. Human-Computer Interaction 19: 311-18.

9. Humphrey, N.K. (1973). The illusion of beauty. Perception 2: 429-39.

10. Reber, R., Schwarz, N., and Winkielman, P. (2004). Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure: Is beauty in the perceiver’s processing experience? Personality and Social Psychology Review 8: 364-82.

11. Her description can be heard at http://cdbaby.com/cd/lyonsgoodall.

12. Morris, D. (1962). The Biology of Art: A Study of the Picture-Making Behaviour of the Great Apes and Its Relationship to Human Art. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

13. BBC News, June 20, 2005.

14. Shick, K.D., and Toth, N. (1993). Making Silent Stones Speak: Human Evolution and the Dawn of Technology. New York: Simon & Schuster.

15. Mithen, S. (2004). The evolution of imagination: An archeological perspective. Substance 94/95: 28-54.

16. Wynn, T. (1995). Handaxe enigmas. World Archaeology 27: 10-24.

17. Mithen, S. (2001). The evolution of imagination: An archaeological perspective. Substance 30: 28-54.

18. Miller, G. (2000). The Mating Mind. New York: Doubleday.

19. Tooby, J., and Cosmides, L. (2001). Does beauty build adapted minds? Toward an evolutionary theory of aesthetics, fiction and the arts. Substance 30: 6-27.

20. Leslie, A. (1987). Pretense and representation: The origins of “theory of mind.” Psychological Review 94: 412-26.

21. Thorpe, W. (1958). The learning of song patterns by birds, with special reference to the song of the chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs. Ibis 100: 535-70.

22. Almli, C.R., and Stanley, F. (1987). Neural insult and critical period concepts. In Bornstein, M.H. (ed.), Sensitive Periods in Development: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (pp. 123-43). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

23. Boyer, P. (in press 2007). Specialised inference engines as precursors of creative imagination? Forthcoming in Roth, I. (ed.), Imaginative Minds. London: British Academy.

24. Carroll, J. (2007). The adaptive function of literature. In Petrov, V., Martin-dale, C., Locher, P., and Petrov, V.M. (eds.), Evolutionary and Neurocognitive Approaches to Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts. Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing.

25. Haidt, J. (2006). The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom. New York: Basic Books.

26. Tractinsky, N., Cokhavi, A., Kirschenbaum, M. (2004). Using ratings and response latencies to evaluate the consistency of immediate aesthetic perceptions of web pages. Proceedings of the Third Annual Workshop on HC I Research in MIS. Washington, DC, December 10-11.

27. Uduehi, J. (1995). A cross cultural assessment of the Maitland-Graves design judgment test using U.S. and Nigerian subjects. Visual Arts Research 13: 11-18.

28. Humphrey, D. (1997). Preferences in symmetries and symmetries in drawings: asymmetries between ages and sexes. Empirical Studies of the Arts 15: 41-60.

29. Møller, A.P., and Thornhill, R. (1998). Bilateral symmetry and sexual selection: A meta-analysis. American Naturalist 15: 174-92.

30. Thornhill, R., and Møller, A.P. (1997). Developmental stability, disease and medicine. Biological Reviews 72: 497-548.

31. Perrett, D.I., Burt, D.M., Penton-Voak, I.S., Lee, K.J., Rowland, D.A., and Edwards, R. (1999). Symmetry and human facial attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior 20: 295-307.

32. Manning, J.T., Koukourakis, K., and Brodie, D.A. (1997). Fluctuating asymmetry, metabolic rate and sexual selection in human males. Evolution and Human Behavior 18: 15-21.

33. Thornhill, R., and Gangestad, S.W. (1994). Human fluctuating asymmetry and sexual behavior. Psychological Science 5: 297-302.

34. Gangestad, S.W., and Thornhill, R. (1997). The evolutionary psychology of extra-pair sex: The role of fluctuating asymmetry. Evolution and Human Behavior 18: 69-88.

35. Scutt, D., Manning, J.T., Whitehouse, G.H., Leinster, S.J., and Massey, C.P. (1997). The relationship between breast asymmetry, breast size and occurrence of breast cancer. British Journal of Radiology 70: 1017-21.

36. Manning, J.T., Scutt, D., Whitehouse, G.H., and Leinster, S.J. (1997). Breast asymmetry and phenotypic quality in women. Evolution and Human Behavior 18: 223-36.

37. Møller, A.P., Soler, M., and Thornhill, R. (1995). Breast asymmetry, sexual selection, and human reproductive success. Evolution and Human Behavior 16: 207-19.

38. Perrett, D.I., Burt, D.M., Penton-Voak, I.S., Lee, K.J., Rowland, D.A., and Edwards, R. (1999). Symmetry and human facial attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior 20: 295-307.

39. Thornhill, R., and Gangestad, S.W. (1999). The scent of symmetry: A human sex pheromone that signals fitness. Evolution and Human Behavior 20: 175-201.

40. Hughes, S.M., Harrison, M.A., and Gallup, G.G., Jr. (2002). The sound of symmetry: Voice as a marker of developmental instability. Evolution and Human Behavior 23: 173-78.

41. Cunningham, M.R. (1986). Measuring the physical in physical attractiveness: Quasi-experiments on the sociobiology of female facial beauty. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50: 923-35.

42. Perrett, D.I., May, K.A., and Yoshikawa, S. (1994). Facial shape and judgements of female attractiveness. Nature 368: 239-42.

43. Langlois, J.H., Ritter, J.M., Roggman, L.A., and Vaughn, L.S. (1991). Facial diversity and infant preferences for attractive faces. Developmental Psychology 27: 79-84.

44. Lawsmith, M.J., Perrett, D.I., Jones, B.C., Cornwell, R.E., Moore, F.R., Feinberg, D.R., Boothroyd, L.G., et al. (2006). Facial appearance is a cue to oestrogen levels in women. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 273: 1435-40.

45. Moshe, B., and Neta, M. (2006). Humans prefer curved visual objects. Psychological Science 17: 645-48.

46. Latto, R. (1995). The brain of the beholder. In Gregory, R., Harris, J., Heard, P., and Rose, D. (eds.), The Artful Eye (pp. 66-94). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

47. Jastrow, J. (1892). On the judgment of angles and positions of lines. American Journal of Psychology 5: 214-48.

48. Latto, R. (2004). Do we like what we see? In Malcolm, G. (ed.), Multidisciplinary Approaches to Visual Representations and Interpretations (pp. 343-56). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

49. Ulrich, R.S. (1986). Human responses to vegetation and landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning 13: 29-44.

50. Ulrich, R.S. (1993). Biophilia, biophobia and natural landscapes. In Kellert, S., and Wilson, E.O. (eds.), The Biophilia Hypothesis (pp. 73-137). Washington, DC: Island Press.

51. Ulrich, R.S. (1984). View through window may influence recovery from surgery. Science 224: 420-21.

52. Balling, J.D., and Falk, J.H. (1982). Development of visual preference for natural environments. Environment and Behavior 14: 5-28.

53. Lohr, V.I., and Pearson-Mims, C.H. (2006). Responses to scenes with spreading, rounded, and conical tree forms. Environment and Behavior 38: 667-88.

54. Orians, G.H. (1980). Habitat selection: General theory and applications to human behavior. In Lockard, J.S. (ed.), The Evolution of Human Social Behavior. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

55. Taylor, R.P. (1998). Splashdown. New Scientist 2144:30-31.

56. Sprott, J. (2004). Can a monkey with a computer create art? Nonlinear Dynamics, Psychology, and Life Sciences 8: 103-14.

57. Aks, D.J., and Sprott, J.C. (1996). Quantifying aesthetic preference for chaotic patterns. Empirical Studies of the Arts 14: 1-19.

58. Wise, J.A., and Rosenberg, E. (1986). The effects of interior treatments on performance stress in three types of mental tasks. Technical Report Space. Sunnyvale, CA: Human Factors Office, NASA-ARC.

59. Wise, J.A., and Taylor, R.P. (2002). Fractal design strategies for enhancement of knowledge work environments. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Meeting, Baltimore.

60. Spehar, B., Clifford, C., Newell, B., and Taylor, R.P. (2004). Universal aesthetic of fractals. Chaos and Graphics 37: 813-20.

61. Mandelbrot, B.B. (2001). Fractals and art for the sake of science. In Emmer, M. (ed.), The Visual Mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

62. Taylor, R.P. (2006). Reduction of physiological stress using fractal art and architecture. Leonardo 39: 245-51.

63. Hagerhall, C., Purcell, T., and Taylor, R.P. (2004). Fractal dimension of landscape silhouette as a predictor for landscape preference. Journal of Environmental Psychology 24: 247-55.

64. Hauser, M.D., and McDermott, J. (2006). Thoughts on an empirical approach to the evolutionary origins of music. Music Perception 24: 111-16.

65. Marler, P. (1990). Song learning: The interface between behaviour and neuroethology. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 329: 109-14.

66. Brown, D. (1991). Human Universals. New York: McGraw-Hill.

67. Blacking, J. (1995). Music, Culture and Experience. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

68. Merriam, A.P. (1964). The Anthropology of Music. Chicago: Northwestern University Press.

69. Huron, D. (2001). Is music an evolutionary adaptation? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 930: 43-61.

70. Zhang, J., Haarottle, G., Wang, C., and Kong, Z. (1999). Oldest playable music instruments found at Jiahua early Neolithic site in China. Nature 401: 366-68.

71. Hagen, E.H., and Bryant, G.A. (2003). Music and dance as a coalition signaling system. Human Nature 14: 21-51.

72. Fitch, T. (2006). On the biology and evolution of music. Music Perception 24: 85-88.

73. Levitin, D.J. (1994). Absolute memory for musical pitch: Evidence from the production of learned melodies. Perception & Psychophysics 56: 414-23.

74. Levitin, D.J., and Cook, P.R. (1996). Memory for musical tempo: Additional evidence that auditory memory is absolute. Perception & Psychophysics 58: 927-35.

75. Trehub, S.E. (2003). Toward a developmental psychology of music. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 999: 402-13.

76. Wright, A.A., Rivera, J.J., Hulse, S.H., et al. (2000). Music perception and octave generalization in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 129: 291-307.

77. Gagnon, T., Hunse, C., Carmichael, L., Fellows, F., and Patrick, J. (1987). Human fetal responses to vibratory acoustic stimulation from twenty-six weeks to term. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 157: 1375-84.

78. Koelsch, S., and Siebel, W.A. (2005). Towards a neural basis of music perception. Trends in Cognitive Science 9:578-84.

79. Koelsch, S., Kasper, E., Sammler, D., Schulze, K., Gunter, T., and Friederici, A.D. (2004). Music, language and meaning: Brain signatures of semantic processing. Nature Neuroscience 7: 302-7.

80. Fitch, W.T., and Hauser, M.D. (2004). Computational constraints on syntactic processing in a nonhuman primate. Science 303: 377-80.

81. Levitin, D.J., and Menon, V. (2003). Musical structure is processed in “language” areas of the brain: A possible role for Brodmann area 47 in temporal coherence. NeuroImage 20: 2142-52.

82. Tillmann, B., Janata, P., and Bharucha, J.J. (2003). Activation of the inferior frontal cortex in musical priming. Cognitive Brain Research 16: 145-61.

83. Koelsch, S., Gunter, T.C., von Cramon, D.Y., Zysset, S., Lohmann, G., and Friederici, A.D. (2002). Bach speaks: A cortical “language-network” serves the processing of music. NeuroImage 17: 956-66.

84. Voss, R.F., and Clarke, J. (1978). 1/f noise in music and speech. Nature 258: 317-18.

85. De Coensel, B., Botterdooren, D., and De Muer, T. (2003). 1/f noise in rural and urban soundscapes. Acta Acoustica 89: 287-95.

86. Garcia-Lazaro, J.A., Ahmed, B., and Schnupp, J.W.H. (2006). Tuning to natural stimulus dynamics in primary auditory cortex. Current Biology 7: 264-71.

87. Rieke, F., Bodnar, D.A., and Bialek, W. (1995). Naturalistic stimuli increase the rate and efficiency of information transmission by primary auditory afferents. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 262: 259-65.

88. Krumhansl, C.L. (1997). An exploratory study of musical emotions and psychophysiology. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 51: 336-53.

89. Pancept, J. (1995). The emotional sources of “chills” induced by music. Music Perception 13: 171-207.

90. Goldstein, A. (1980). Thrills in response to music and other stimuli. Physiological Psychology 8: 126-29.

91. Blood, A.J., and Zatorre, R.J. (2001. Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98: 11818-23.

92. Ashby, F.G., Isen, A.M., and Turken, A.U. (1999). A neuropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition. Psychology Review 106: 529-50.

93. Rauscher, F.H., Shaw, G.L., and Ky, K.N. (1993). Music and spatial task performance. Nature 365: 611.

94. For a review, see: Schellenberg, E.G. (2005). Music and cognitive abilities. Current Directions in Psychological Science 14: 317-20.

95. Barnett, S.M., and Ceci, S.J. (2002). When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for transfer. Psychological Bulletin 128: 612-37.

96. Schellenberg, E.G. (2004). Music lessons enhance IQ. Psychological Science 15: 511-14.

97. Elbert, T., Pantev, C., Wienbruch, C., Rockstroh, B., and Taub, E. (1995). Increased cortical representation of the fingers of the left hand in string players. Science 270: 305-7.

98. Gaser, C., and Schlaug, G. (2003). Brain structures differ between musicians and nonmusicians. Journal of Neuroscience 23: 9240-45.

99. Neville, H.J., unpublished data, personal communication.

100. Rueda, M.R., Rothbart, M.K., McCandliss, B.D., Saccomanno, L., and Posner, M.I. (2005). Training, maturation, and genetic influences on the development of executive attention. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102: 14931-36.

101. Norton, A., Winner, E., Cronin, K., et al. (2005). Are there pre-existing neural, cognitive, or motoric markers for musical ability? Brain and Cognition 59: 124-34.

102. Schlaug, G., Norton, A., Overy, K., and Winner, E. (2005). Effects of music training on the child’s brain and cognitive development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1060: 219-30.

103. Personal communication.

Chapter 7: WE ALL ACT LIKE DUALISTS: THE CONVERTER FUNCTION

1. Barrett, J.L. (2004). Why Would Anyone Believe in God? Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press.

2. Atran, S. (1990). Cognitive Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

3. Pinker, S. (1997). How the Mind Works. New York: W.W. Norton.

4. Gelman, S.A., and Wellman, H.M. (1991). Insides and essences: Early understandings of the non-obvious. Cognition 38: 213-44.

5. Atran, S. (1998). Folk biology and the anthropology of science: Cognitive universals and cultural particulars. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21: 547-609.

6. Caramazza, A., and Shelton, J.R. (1998). Domain-specific knowledge systems in the brain: The animate-inanimate distinction. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 10: 1-34.

7. Boyer, P., and Barrett, C. (2005). Evolved intuitive ontology: Integrating neural, behavioral and developmental aspects of domain-specificity. In Buss, D.M. (ed.), The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology (pp. 200-23). New York: Wiley.

8. Barrett, H.C. (2005). Adaptations to predators and prey. In Buss (ed.), The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology (pp. 200-23). New York: Wiley.

9. Coss, R.G., Guse, K.L., Poran, N.S., and Smith, D.G. (1993). Development of antisnake defenses in California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi), II: Microevolutionary effects of relaxed selection from rattlesnakes. Behaviour 124: 137-64.

10. Blumstein, D.T., Daniel, J.C., Griffin, A.S., and Evans, C.S. (2000). Insular tammar wallabies (Macropus eugenii) respond to visual but not acoustic cues from predators. Behavioral Ecology 11: 528-35.

11. Fox, R., and McDaniel, M. (1982). The perception of biological motion by human infants. Science 218: 486-87.

12. Schlottmann, A., and Surian, L. (1999). Do 9-month-olds perceive causation-at-a-distance? Perception 28: 1105-13.

13. Csibra, G., Gergely, G., Bíró, S., Koós, O., and Brockbank, M. (1999). Goal attribution without agency cues: The perception of “pure reason” in infancy. Cognition 72: 237-67.

14. Csibra, G., Bíró, S., Koós, O., and Gergely, G. (2003). One-year-old infants use teleological representations of actions productively. Cognitive Psychology 27: 111-33.

15. Gelman, S.A., Coley, J.D., Rosengren, K.S., Hartman, E., Pappas, A., and Keil, F.C. (1998). Beyond labeling: The role of maternal input in the acquisition of richly structured categories. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 63: 1-157.

16. Bloom, P. (2004). Descartes’ Baby. New York: Basic Books.

17. Vonk, J., and Povinelli, D.J. (2006). Similarity and difference in the conceptual systems of primates: The unobservability hypothesis. In Wasserman, E., and Zentall, T. (eds.), Comparative Cognition: Experimental Explorations of Animal Intelligence (pp. 363-87). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

18. Baillargeon, R.E., Spelke, E., and Wasserman, S. (1985). Object permanence in five-month-old infants. Cognition 20: 191-208.

19. Spelke, E.S. (1991). Physical knowledge in infancy: Reflections on Piaget’s theory. In Carey, S., and Gelman, R. (eds.), The Epigenesis of Mind: Essays on Biology and Cognition (pp. 133-69). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

20. Spelke, E.S. (1994). Initial knowledge: Six suggestions. Cognition 50: 443-47.

21. Baillargeon. R. (2002). The acquisition of physical knowledge in infancy: A summary in eight lessons. In Goswami, U. (ed.), Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

22. Shultz, T.R., Altmann, E., and Asselin, J. (1986). Judging causal priority. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 4: 67-74.

23. Kohler, W. (1925). The Mentality of Apes. New York: Liveright.

24. Tomasello, M. (1998). Uniquely primate, uniquely human. Developmental Science 1: 1-16.

25. Povinelli, D.J. (2000). Folk Physics for Apes: The Chimpanzee’s Theory of How the World Works, rev. ed. 2003. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

26. Bloom, P. (1996). Intention, history and artifact concepts. Cognition 60: 1-29.

27. Moore, C.J., and Price, C.J. (1999). A functional neuroimaging study of the variables that generate category-specific object processing differences. Brain 122: 943-62.

28. Mecklinger, A., Gruenewald, C., Besson, M., Magnié, M.-N., and Von Cramon, D.Y. (2002). Separable neuronal circuitries for manipulable and non-manipulable objects in working memory. Cerebral Cortex 12: 1115-23.

29. Heider, F., and Simmel, M. (1944). An experimental study of apparent behavior. American Journal of Psychology 57: 243-59.

30. Kelemen, D. (1999). The scope of teleological thinking in preschool children. Cognition 70: 241-72.

31. Kelemen, D. (1999). Why are rocks pointy? Children’s preference for teleological explanations of the natural world. Developmental Psychology 35: 1440-53.

32. Kelemen, D. (2003). British and American children’s preference for teleo-functional explanations of the natural world. Cognition. 88: 201-21.

33. Kelemen, D. (1999). Function, goals, and intention: Children’s teleological reasoning about objects. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3: 461-68.

34. Gergely, G., and Csibra, G. (2003). Teleological reasoning in infancy: The naïve theory of rational action. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7: 287-92.

35. Povinelli, D.J. (2004). Behind the ape’s appearance: Escaping anthropocentrism in the study of other minds. Daedalus 133 (Winter): 29-41.

36. Povinelli, D.J., and Dunphy-Lelii, S. (2001). Do chimpanzees seek explanations? Preliminary comparative investigations. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 52: 93-101.

37. Povinelli, D.J., Bering, J., and Giambrone, S. (2001). Toward a science of other minds: Escaping the argument by analogy. Cognitive Science 24: 509-41.

38. Wynn, K. (1992). Addition and subtraction by human infants. Nature 358: 749-50.

39. Klin, A. (2000). Attributing social meaning to ambiguous visual stimuli in higher-functioning autism and Asperger syndrome: The social attribution task. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 41: 831-46.

40. Pierce, K., Muller, R.A., Ambrose, J., Allen, G., and Courchesne, E. (2001). Face processing occurs outside the fusiform “face area” in autism: Evidence from functional MRI. Brain 124: 2059-73.

41. Schultz, R.T., Gauthier, I., Klin, A., Fulbright, R.K., Anderson, A.W., Volkmar, F., et al. (2000). Abnormal ventral temporal cortical activity during face discrimination among individuals with autism and Asperger syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry 57: 331-40.

42. Tattersall, I. (1998). Becoming Human. New York: Harcourt Brace.

43. McComb, K., Baker, L., and Moss, C. (2006). African elephants show high levels of interest in the skulls and ivory of their own species. Biology Letters 2: 26-28.

44. Moss, C. (1988). Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years of Life in an Elephant Family. New York: William Morrow.

45. Evans, J., and Curtis-Holmes, J. (2005). Rapid responding increases belief bias: Evidence for the dual-process theory of reasoning. Thinking and Reasoning 11: 382-89.

Chapter 8: IS ANYBODY THERE?

1. Dehaene, S., and Naccache, L. (2001). Towards a cognitive neuroscience of consciousness: Basic evidence and a workspace framework. Cognition 79: 1-37.

2. Gazzaniga, M.S., Le Doux, J.E., and Wilson, D.H. (1977). Language, praxis, and the right hemisphere: Clues to some mechanisms of consciousness. Neurology 27: 1144-47.

3. Searle, J.R. (1998). How to study consciousness scientifically. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 353: 1935-42.

4. Zeman, A. (2001). Consciousness. Brain 124: 1263-89.

5. Moran, A. (2006). Levels of consciousness and self-awareness: A comparison and integration of various neurocognitive views. Consciousness and Cognition 15: 358-71.

6. Damasio, A. (1999). The Feeling of What Happens. New York: Harcourt Brace.

7. Parvizi, J., and Damasio, A. (2001). Consciousness and the brainstem. Cognition 79: 135-60.

8. Bogen, J. (1995). On the neurophysiology of consciousness, I: An overview. Consciousness and Cognition 4: 52-62.

9. Allman, J.M., Hakeem, A., Erwin, E.N., and Hof, P. (2001). The anterior cingulate cortex: The evolution of an interface between emotion and cognition. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 935: 107-17.

10. Baddeley, A.D. (1986). Working Memory. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

11. Shallice, T. (1988). From Neurospsychology to Mental Structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

12. Posner, M.I. (1994). Attention: The mechanisms of consciousness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91: 7398-7403.

13. Posner, M.I., and Dehaene, S. (1994). Attentional networks. Trends in Neuroscience 17: 75-79.

14. Baars, B.J. (1989). A Cognitive Theory of Consciousness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

15. Tonini, G., and Edelman, G.M. (1998). Consciousness and complexity. Science 282: 1846-51.

16. Dehaene, S., and Changeux, J.-P. (2005). Ongoing spontaneous activity controls access to consciousness: A neuronal model for inattentional blindness. Public Library of Science: Biology 3: e141.

17. Dehaene, S., and Changeux, J.-P. (2004). Neural mechanisms for access to consciousness. In Gazzaniga, M.S. (ed.), The Cognitive Neurosciences, vol. 3. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

18. Driver, J., and Vuilleumier, P. (2001). Perceptual awareness and its loss in unilateral neglect and extinction. Cognition 79: 39-88.

19. Bisiach, E., and Luzzatti, B. (1978). Unilateral neglect of representational space. Cortex 14: 129-33.

20. Halligan, P.W., and Marshall, J.C. (1998). Neglect of awareness. Consciousness and Cognition 7: 356-80.

21. McGlinchey-Berroth, R., Milberg, W.P., Verfaellie, M., Alexander, M., and Kilduff, P. (1993). Semantic priming in the neglected field: Evidence from a lexical decision task. Cognitive Neuropsychology 10: 79-108.

22. Aboitiz, F., Scheibel, A.B., Fisher, R.S., and Zaidel, E. (1992). Fiber composition of the human corpus callosum. Brain Research 598: 143-53.

23. Van Wagenen, W.P., and Herren, R.Y. (1940). Surgical division of commissural pathways in the corpus callosum: Relation to spread of an epileptic seizure. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 44: 740-59.

24. Akelatis, A.J. (1941). Studies on the corpus callosum: Higher visual functions in each homonymous field following complete section of the corpus callosum. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 45: 788.

25. Gazzaniga, M.S., Bogen, J.E., and Sperry, R. (1962). Some functional effects of sectioning the cerebral commissures in man. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 48: 1756-69.

26. Sperry, R. (1984). Consciousness, personal identity and the divided brain. Neuropsychologia 22: 661-73.

27. Kutas, M., Hillyard, S.A., Volpe, B.T., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (1990). Late positive event-related potentials after commissural section in humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2: 258-71.

28. Gazzaniga, M.S., Bogen, J.E., and Sperry, R. (1967). Dyspraxia following division of the cerebral commissures. Archives of Neurology 16: 606-12.

29. Gazzaniga, M.S., and Smylie, C.S. (1990). Hemispheric mechanisms controlling voluntary and spontaneous facial expressions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2: 239-45.

30. Enns, J.T., and Kingstone, A. (1997). Hemispheric cooperation in visual search: Evidence from normal and split-brain observers. In Christman, S., (ed.), Cerebral Asymmetries in Sensory and Perceptual Processes(pp. 197-231). Amsterdam: North-Holland.

31. Kingstone, A., Grabowecky, M., Mangun, G.R., Valsangkar, M.A., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (1997). Paying attention to the brain: The study of selective visual attention in cognitive neuroscience. In Burak, J., and Enns, J.T. (eds.), Attention, Development, and Psychopathology (pp. 263-87). New York: Guilford Press.

32. Kingstone, A., Friesen, C.K., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (2000). Reflexive joint attention depends on lateralized cortical connections. Psychological Science 11: 159-66.

33. Holtzman, J.D., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (1982). Dual task interactions due exclusively to limits in processing resources. Science 218: 1325-27.

34. Mangun, G.R., Luck, S.J., Plager, R., Loftus, W., Hillyard, S.A., Clark, V.P, et al. (1994). Monitoring the visual world: Hemispheric asymmetries and subcortical processes in attention. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 6: 267-75.

35. Berlucchi, G., Mangun, G.R., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (1997). Visuospatial attention and the split brain. News in Physiological Sciences 12: 226-31.

36. Corballis, M.C. (1995). Visual integration in the split brain [review]. Neuropsychologia 33: 937-59.

37. Nass, R.D., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (1987). Cerebral lateralization and specialization of human central nervous system. In Mountcastle, V.B., Plum, F., and Geiger, S.R. (eds.), Handbook of Physiology, section 1, vol. 5, part 2 (pp. 701-61). Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society.

38. Zaidel, E. (1991). Language functions in the two hemispheres following complete cerebral commissurotomy and hemispherectomy. In Boller, F., and Grafman, J. (eds.), Handbook of Neuropsychology, vol. 4 (pp. 115-50). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

39. Gazzaniga, M.S. (1995). On neural circuits and cognition [review]. Neural Computation 7: 1-12.

40. Wolford, G., Miller, M.B., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (2000). The left hemisphere’s role in hypothesis formation. Journal of Neuroscience 20: RC64.

41. Miller, M.B., and Valsangkar-Smyth, M. (2005). Probability matching in the right hemisphere. Brain and Cognition 57(2): 165-67.

42. Wolford, G., Miller, M.B., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (2004). Split decisions. In Gazzaniga, M.S. (ed.), The Cognitive Neurosciences, vol. 3 (pp. 1189-99). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

43. Schachter, S., and Singer, J.E. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychology Review 69: 379-99.

44. Phelps, E.A., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (1992). Hemispheric differences in mnemonic processing: The effects of left hemisphere interpretation. Neuropsychologia 30: 293-97.

45. Metcalfe, J., Funnell, M., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (1995). Right-hemisphere memory superiority: Studies of a split-brain patient. Psychological Science 6: 157-64.

46. Doran, J.M. (1990). The Capgras syndrome: Neurological/neuropsychological perspectives. Neuropsychology 4: 29-42.

47. Kihlstrom, J.F., and Klein, S.B. (1997). Self-knowledge and self-awareness. In Snodgrass, J.D., and Thompson, R.L. (eds.), The self across psychology: Self-recognition, self-awareness, and the self concept. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 818: 5-17.

48. Boyer, P., Robbins, P., and Jack, A.I. (2005). Varieties of self-systems worth having: Introduction to a special issue on “the brain and its self.” Consciousness and Cognition 14: 647-60.

49. Gillihan, S.J., and Farah, M.J. (2005). Is self special? A critical review of evidence from experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Psychological Bulletin 131: 76-97.

50. Rogers, T.B., Kuiper, N.A., and Kirker, W.S. (1977). Self-reference and the encoding of personal information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35: 677-88.

51. Tulving, E. (1983). Elements of Episodic Memory. New York: Oxford University Press.

52. Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychology 26: 1-12.

53. Tulving, E. (1993). What is episodic memory? Current Directions in Psychological Science 2: 67-70.

54. Tulving, E. (2005). Episodic memory and autonoesis: Uniquely human? In Terrace, H.S., and Metcalfe, J. (eds.), The Missing Link in Cognition (pp. 3-56). New York: Oxford University Press.

55. Bauer, P.J., and Wewerka, S.S. (1995). One- to two-year-olds’ recall of events: The more expressed, the more impressed. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 59: 475-96.

56. Perner, J., and Ruffman, T. (1995). Episodic memory and autonoetic consciousness: Developmental evidence and a theory of childhood amnesia. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 59: 516-48.

57. Wheeler, M.A., Stussl, D.T., and Tulving, E. (1997). Toward a theory of episodic memory: The frontal lobes and autonoetic consciousness. Psychological Bulletin 121: 331-54.

58. Friedman, W.J. (1991). The development of children’s memory for the time of past events. Child Development 62: 139-55.

59. Friedman, W.J., Gardner, A.G., and Zubin, N.R. (1995). Children’s comparisons of the recency of two events from the past year. Child Development 66: 970-83.

60. For a summary, see: Klein, S. (2004). Knowing one’s self. In Gazzaniga, M.S. (ed.), The Cognitive Neurosciences, vol. 3 (pp. 1077-89). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

61. Babey, S.H., Queller, S., and Klein, S.B. (1998). The role of expectancy violating behaviors in the representation of trait-knowledge: A summary-plus-exception model of social memory. Social Cognition 16: 287-339.

62. Morin, A. (2002). Right hemispheric self-awareness: A critical assessment. Consciousness and Cognition 11: 396-401.

63. Conway, M.A., Pleydell-Pearce, C.W., and Whitecross, S.E. (2001). The neuroanatomy of autobiographical memory: A slow cortical potential study of autobiographical memory retrieval. Journal of Memory and Language 45: 493-524.

64. Conway, M.A., Pleydell-Pearce, C.W., Whitecross, S., and Sharpe, H. (2002). Brain imaging autobiographical memory. Psychology of Learning and Motivation 41: 229-64.

65. Conway, M.A., Pleydell-Pearce, C.W., Whitecross, S.E., and Sharpe, H. (2003). Neurophysiological correlates of memory for experienced and imagined events. Neuropsychologia 41: 334-40.

66. Turk, D.J., Heatherton, T.F., Macrae, C.N., Kelley, W.M., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (2003). Out of contact, out of mind: The distributed nature of self. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1001: 65-78.

67. Gazzaniga, M.S. (1972). One brain—two minds? American Scientist 60: 311-17.

68. Gazzaniga, M.S., and Smylie, C.S. (1983). Facial recognition and brain asymmetries: Clues to underlying mechanisms. Annals of Neurology 13: 536-40.

69. DeRenzi, E. (1986). Prosopagnosia in two patients with CT scan evidence of damage confined to the right hemisphere. Neuropsychologia 24: 385-89.

70. Landis, T., Cummings, J.L., Christen, L., Bogen, J.E., and Imhof, H.G. (1986). Are unilateral right posterior cerebral lesions sufficient to cause prosopagnosia? Clinical and radiological findings in six additional patients. Cortex 22: 243-52.

71. Michel, F., Poncet, M., and Signoret, J.L. (1989). Les lesions responsables de la prosopagnosie sont-elles toujours bilateral. Revue Neurologique (Paris) 145: 764-70.

72. Wada, Y., and Yamamoto, T. (2001). Selective impairment of facial recognition due to a haematoma restricted to the right fusiform and lateral occipital region. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 71: 254-57.

73. Whiteley, A.M., and Warrington, E.K. (1977). Prosopagnosia: A clinical, psychological, and anatomical study of three patients. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 40: 395-403.

74. Keenan, J.P., Nelson, A., O’Connor, M., and Pascual-Leone, A. (2001) Neurology: Self recognition and the right hemisphere. Nature 409: 305.

75. Keenan, J.P., et al. (1999). Left hand advantage in a self-face recognition task. Neuropsychologia 37: 1421-25.

76. Keenan, J.P., Ganis, G., Freund, S., and Pascual-Leone, A. (2000). Self-face identification is increased with left hand responses. Laterality 5: 259-68.

77. Maguire, E.A., and Mummery, C.J. (1999). Differential modulation of a common memory retrieval network revealed by positron emission tomography. Hippocampus 9: 54-61.

78. Conway, M.A., et al. (1999). A positron emission tomography (PET) study of autobiographical memory retrieval. Memory 7: 679-702.

79. Conway, M.A., and Pleydell-Pearce, C.W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychology Review 107: 261-88.

80. Turk, D.J. (2002). Mike or me? Self-recognition in a split-brain patient. Nature Neuroscience 5: 841-42.

81. Cooney, J.W., and Gazzaniga, M.S. (2003). Neurologic disorders and the structure of human consciousness. Trends in Cognitive Science 7: 161-64.

82. For a review of different theories of components of consciousness, see: Morin, A. (2006). Levels of consciousness and self-awareness: A comparison and integration of various neurocognitive views. Consciousness and Cognition 15: 358-71.

83. Hauser, M. (2000). Wild Minds (p. 93). New York: Henry Holt.

84. Mateo, J.M. (2006). The nature and representation of individual recognition cues in Belding’s ground squirrels. Animal Behaviour 71: 141-54.

85. Gallup, G.G., Jr. (1970). Chimpanzees: Self-recognition. Science 2: 86-87.

86. Swartz, K.B., and Evans, S. (1991). Not all chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) show self-recognition. Primates 32: 583-96.

87. Povinelli, D.J., Rulf, A.R., Landau, K., and Bierschwale, D.T. (1993). Self-recognition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Distribution, ontogeny, and patterns of emergence. Journal of Comparative Psychology 107: 347-72.

88. de Veer, M.W., Gallup, G.G., Jr., Theall, L.A., van den Bos, R., and Povinelli, D.J. (2003). An 8-year longitudinal study of mirror self-recognition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Neuropsychologia 41: 229-34.

89. Suarez, S.D., and Gallup, G.G., Jr. (1981). Self-recognition in chimpanzees and orangutans, but not gorillas. Journal of Human Evolution 10: 175-88.

90. Swartz, K.B. (1997). What is mirror self-recognition in nonhuman primates, and what is it not? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 818: 64-71.

91. Reiss, D., and Marino, L. (2001). Mirror self-recognition in the bottlenose dolphin: A case of cognitive convergence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98: 5937-42.

92. Barth, J., Povinelli, D.J., and Cant, J.G.H. (2004). Bodily origins of self. In Beike, D., Lampinen, J., and Behrend, D. (eds.), Self and Memory. New York: Psychology Press.

93. Povinelli, D.J. (1989). Failure to find self-recognition in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in contrast to their use of mirror cues to discover hidden food. American Journal of Comparative Psychology 103: 122-31.

94. Plotnik, J.M., de Waal, F.B.M., and Reiss, D. (2006). Self-recognition in an Asian elephant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103: 17053-57.

95. Amsterdam, B.K. (1972). Mirror self-image reactions before age two. Developmental Psychobiology 5: 297-305.

96. Gallup, G.G., Jr. (1982). Self-awareness and the emergence of mind in primates. American Journal of Primatology 2: 237-48.

97. Mitchell, R.W. (1997). Kinesthetic-visual matching and the self-concept as explanations of mirror-self-recognition. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior 27: 101-23.

98. Mitchell, R.W. (1994). Multiplicities of self. In Parker, S.T., Mitchell, R.W., and Boccia, M.L. (eds.), Self-awareness in Animals and Humans. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

99. Povinelli, D.J., and Cant, J.G.H. (1995). Arboreal clambering and the evolution of self-conception. Quarterly Review of Biology 70: 393-421.

100. Call, J. (2004). The self and other: A missing link in comparative social cognition. In Terrace, H.S., and Metcalfe, J. (eds.), The Missing Link in Cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

101. Povinelli, D.J., Landau, K.R., and Perilloux, H.K. (1996). Self-recognition in young children using delayed versus live feedback: Evidence of a developmental asynchrony. Child Development 67: 1540-54.

102. Suddendorf, T., and Corballis, M.C. (1997). Mental time travel and the evolution of the human mind. Genetic Psychology Monographs 123: 133-67.

103. Roberts, W.A. (2002). Are animals stuck in time? Psychological Bulletin 128: 473-89.

104. Clayton, N.S., and Dickinson, A. (1998). Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays. Nature 395: 272-74.

105. Clayton, N.S., and Dickinson, A. (1999). Memory for the content of caches by scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 25: 82-91.

106. Clayton, N.S., and Dickinson, A. (1999). Scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens) remember the relative time of caching as well as the location and content of their caches. Journal of Comparitive Psychology 113: 403-16.

107. Clayton, N.S., Yu, K.S., and Dickinson, A. (2001). Scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens) form integrated memories of the multiple features of caching episodes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 27: 17-29.

108. Clayton, N.S., Yu, K.S., and Dickinson, A. (2003). Interacting cache memories: Evidence for flexible memory use by western scrub-jays (Aphelocoma californica). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 29: 14-22.

109. Reiner, A., et al. (2004). The Avian Brain Nomenclature Forum: Terminology for a new century in comparative neuroanatomy. Journal of Comparative Neuroanatomy 473: E1-E6.

110. Butler, A.M., and Cotterill, R.M.J. (2006). Mammalian and avian neuroanatomy and the question of consciousness in birds. Biological Bulletin 211: 106-27.

111. Schwartz, B.L. (2004). Do nonhuman primates have episodic memory? In Terrace, H.S., and Metcalfe, J. (eds.), The Missing Link in Cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

112. Dally, J.M., Emery, N.J., and Clayton, N.S. (2006). Food-caching western scrub-jays keep track of who was watching when. Science 312: 1662-65.

113. Emery, N.J., and Clayton, N.S. (2001). Effects of experience and social context on prospective caching strategies in scrub jays. Nature 414: 443-46.

114. Mulcahy, N.J., and Call, J. ( 2006). Apes save tools for future use. Science 312: 1038-40.

115. Suddendorf, T. (2006). Foresight and evolution of the human mind. Science 312: 1006-7.

116. Smith, J.D., Shields, W.E., Schull, J., and Washburn, D.A. (1997). The uncertain response in humans and animals. Cognition 62: 75-97.

117. Smith, J.D., Schull, J., Strote, J., McGee, K., Egnor, R., and Erb, L. (1995). The uncertain response in the bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 124: 391-408.

118. Smith, J.D., Shields, W.E., and Washburn, D.A. (2003). The comparative psychology of uncertainty monitoring and metacognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 26:317-39; discussion 340-73.

119. Browne, D. (2004). Do dolphins know their own minds? Biology and Philosophy 19: 633-53.

120. Foote, A.L., and Crystal, J.D. (2007). Metacognition in the rat. Current Biology 17: 551-55.

121. Call, J. (2004). Inferences about the location of food in the great apes. Journal of Comparative Psychology 118: 232-41.

122. Call, J., and Carpenter, M. (2001). Do apes and children know what they have seen? Animal Cognition 4: 207-20.

Chapter 9: WHO NEEDS FLESH?

1. www.ethologic.com/sasha/articles/Cyborgs.rtf.

2. Kurzweil, R. (2005). The Singularity Is Near. New York: Viking.

3. Markram, H. (2006). The blue brain project. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 7: 153-60.

4. Chase, V.D. (2006). Shattered Nerves: How Science Is Solving Modern Medicine’s Most Perplexing Problem (pp. 266-68). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

5. Bodanis, D. (2004). Electric Universe: The Shocking True Story of Electricity (p. 199). New York: Crown.

6. Horgan, H. (2005). The forgotten era of brain chips. Scientific American 290, no. 4 (October): 66-73.

7. Clynes, M.E., and Kline, N.S. (1960). Cyborgs and space. Astronautics. American Rocket Society: Sept.

8. Chorost, M. (2005). Rebuilt: My Journey Back to the Hearing World. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

9. Brooks, R.A. (2002). Flesh and Machines. New York: Pantheon.

10. Kennedy, P.R., and Bakay, R.A. (1998). Restoration of neural output from a paralyzed patient by a direct brain connection. NeuroReport 9: 1707-11.

11. Kennedy, P.R., Bakay, R.A.E., Moore, M.M., Adams, K., and Goldwaithe, J. (2000). Direct control of a computer from the human central nervous system. IEEE Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering 8: 198-202.

12. Donoghue, J.P. (2002). Connecting cortex to machines: Recent advances in brain interfaces. Nature Neuroscience 5 (Suppl.): 1085-88.

13. Abbott, A. (2006). Neuroprosthetics: In search of the sixth sense. Nature 442: 125-27.

14. Fromherz, P., et al. (1991). A neuron-silicon junction: A Retzius cell of the leech on an insulated-gate field effect transistor. Science 252: 1290-92.

15. Fromherz, P. (2006). Three levels of neuroelectronic interfacing: Silicon chips with ion channels, nerve cells, and brain tissue. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1093: 143-60.

16. Hochberg, L.R., Serruya, M.D., Friehs, G.M., Mukand, J.A., Saleh, M., Caplan, A.H., Branner, A., Chen, D., Penn, R.D., and Donoghue, J.P. (2006). Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia. Nature 442: 164-71.

17. Georgopoulos, A.P., Kalaska, J.F., Caminiti, R., and Massey, J.T. (1982). On the relations between the direction of two-dimensional arm movements and cell discharge in primate motor cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 11:1527-37.

18. Georgopoulos, A.P., Caminiti, R., Kalaska, J.F., and Massey, J.T. (1983). Spatial coding of movement: A hypothesis concerning the coding of movement direction by motor cortical populations. Experimental Brain Research Supplement 7: 327-36.

19. Georgopoulos, A.P., Kettner, R.E., and Schwartz, A.B. (1988). Primate motor cortex and free arm movements to visual targets in three-dimensional space, II: Coding of the direction of movement by a neuronal population. Journal of Neuroscience 8: 2928-37.

20. Andersen, R.A., and Buneo, C.A. (2002). Intentional maps in posterior parietal cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience 25: 189-220.

21. Batista, A.P., Buneo, C.A., Snyder, L.H., and Andersen, R.A. (1999). Reach plans in eye-centered coordinates. Science 285: 257-60.

22. Buneo, C.A., Jarvis, M.R., Batista, A.P., and Andersen, R.A. (2002). Direct visuomotor transformations for reaching. Nature 416: 632-36.

23. Musallam, S., Corneil, B.D., Greger, B., Scherberger, H., and Andersen, R.A. (2004). Cognitive control signals for neural prosthetics. Science 305(5681): 258-62.

24. Wolpaw, J.R. (2007). Brain-computer interfaces as new brain output pathways. Journal of Physiology 579: 613-19.

25. Vaughan, T.M., and Wolpaw, J.N. (2006). The third international meeting on brain-computer interface technology: Making a difference. IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering 14: 126-27.

26. Berger, T.W., Ahuja, A., Courellis, S.H., Deadwyler, S.A., Erinjippurath, G., Gerhardt, G.A., Gholmieh, G., et al. (2005). Restoring lost cognitive function. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology 24, no. 5: 30-44.

27. http://www.case.edu/artsci/cogs/donald.html.

28. Gelernter, D. (2007). What are people well informed about in the information age? In Brockman, J. (ed.), What Is Your Dangerous Idea? New York: Harper.

29. www.shadow.org.uk/projects/biped.shtml#Anchor-Anthropomorphism-51540.

30. www.takanishi.mech.waseda.ac.jp/research/index.htm.

31. Thomaz, A.L., Berlin, M., and Breazeal, C. (2005). Robot science meets social science: An embodied computational model of social referencing. Cognitive Science Society workshop July 25-26: 7-17.

32. Suzuki, T., Inaba, K., and Takeno, J. (2005). Conscious robot that distinguishes between self and others and implements imitation behavior. Paper presented at: Innovations in Applied Artificial Intelligence, 18th International Conference on Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 3533: 101-10.

33. Donald, M. (1999). Preconditions for the evolution of protolanguages. In Corballis, M.C., and Lea, S.E.G. (eds.), The Descent of Mind. New York: Oxford University Press.

34. Breazeal, C., Brooks, A., Gray, J., Hoffman, G., Kidd, C., Lee, H., Lieberman, J., Lockerd, A., and Mulanda, D. (2004). Humanoid robots as cooperative partners for people. International Journal of Humanoid Robotics 1 (2): 1-34.

35. Breazeal, C., Buchsbaum, D., Gray, J., Gatenby, D., and Blumberg, B. (2005). Learning from and about others: Towards using imitation to bootstrap the social understanding of others by robots. Artificial Life 11 (2): 31-62. Also in Rocha, L., and Almedía e Costa, F. (eds.), Artificial Life X (pp. 111-30). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

36. Barsalou, L.W., Niedenthal, P.M., Barbey, A., and Tuppert, J. (2003). Social embodiment. In Ross, B. (ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation (pp. 43-92). Boston: Academic Press.

37. Anderson, A. (2007). Brains cannot become minds without bodies. In Brockman, J. (ed.), What Is Your Dangerous Idea? New York: Harper.

38. Hawkins, J., with Blakeslee, S. (2004). On Intelligence. New York: Henry Holt.

39. www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html.

40. www.aaai.org/AITopics/html/applications.html.

41. Searle, J. (1980). Minds, brains, and programs. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3: 417-57.

42. http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~jsearle/BiologicalNaturalismOct04.doc.

43. Turing, A.M. (1950). Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind 59: 433-60.

44. www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai/whatisai.html.

45. Sharma, J., Angelucci, A., and Sur, M. (2000). Induction of visual orientation modules in auditory cortex. Nature 404: 841-47.

46. Von Melchner, L., Pallas, S.L., and Sur, M. (2000). Visual behaviour mediated by retinal projections directed to the auditory pathway. Nature 404: 871-76.

47. Majewska, A., and Sur, M. (2006). Plasticity and specificity of cortical processing networks. Trends in Neuroscience 29: 323-29.

48. Bach y Rita, P. (2004). Tactile sensory substitution studies. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1013: 83-91.

49. Donald, M. (1993). Human cognitive evolution: What we were, what we are becoming. Social Research 60: 143-70.

50. Pain, E. (2006). Leading the blue brain project. Science Careers. Oct. 6, http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org/career_development/previous_issues/articles/2006_10_06/leading_the_blue_brain_project/(parent)/68.

51. Stock, G. (2003). From regenerative medicine to human design: What are we really afraid of? DNA and Cell Biology 22: 679-83.

52. Cohen, N.S., Chang, A., Boyer, H., and Helling, R. (1973). Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 70: 3240-44.

53. Brown, B.D., Venneri, M.A., Zingale, A., Sergi, L.S., and Naldini, L. (2006). Endogenous microRNA regulation suppresses transgene expression in hematopoietic lineages and enables stable gene transfer. Nature Medicine 12: 585-91.

54. Hacein-Bey-Abina, S., von Kalle, C., Schmidt, M., et al. (2003). LMO2-associated clonal T cell proliferation in two patients after gene therapy for SCID-X1. Science 302: 415-19.

55. Cavazzana-Calvo, M., Hacein-Bey, S., De Saint Basile, G., Gross, F., Yvon, E., Nusbaum, P., Selz, F., et al. (2000). Gene therapy of human severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)-X1 disease. Science 288: 669-72.

56. Hacein-Bey-Abina, S., Le Deist, F., Carlier, F., et al. (2002). Sustained correction of X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency by ex vivo gene therapy. New England Journal of Medicine 346: 1185-93.

57. Gaspar, H.B., et al. (2004). Gene therapy of X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency by use of a pseudotyped gammaretroviral vector. Lancet 364: 2181-87.

58. Ott, M.G., Schmidt, M., Schwarzwaelder, K., Stein, S., Siler, U., Koehl, U., Glimm, H., et al. (2006). Correction of X-linked chronic granulomatous disease by gene therapy, augmented by insertional activation of MDS1-EVI1, PRDM16 or SETBP1. Nature Medicine 12: 401-9.

59. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6609205.stm.

60. Renwick, P. J., Trussler, J., Ostad-Saffari, E., Fassihi, H., Black, C., Braude, P., Ogilvie, C.C., and Abbs, S. (2006). Proof of principle and first cases using preimplantation genetic haplotyping—a paradigm shift for embryo diagnosis. Reproductive Bio-Medicine Online 13:110-19.

61. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/5079802.stm.

62. Renwick, P., and Ogilvie, C.M. (2007). Preimplantation genetic diagnosis for monogenic diseases: Overview and emerging issues. Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics 7: 33-43.

63. Harrington, J.J., Van Bokkelen, G., Mays, R.W., Gustashaw, K., and Willard, H.F. (1997). Formation of de novo centromeres and construction of first-generation human artificial microchromosomes. Nature Genetics15: 345-55.

64. Stock, G. (2002). Redesigning Humans. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

65. www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn3451.