Natural Magic - Doreen Valiente 1998

Magic of Talismans and Amulets

The wearing of talismans and amulets was practised by all the great civilizations of the past and especially that of ancient Egypt, from which so many of the basic ideas of magic derive. Nor has their popularity waned today. A host of so-called ’lucky charms’ may be seen advertised for sale, while jewellers display in their windows attractive pendants and rings of a more or less magical nature. These often feature ’birth-stones’ according to the sign of the Zodiac one was born under.

Is there really any truth in the beliefs behind these legendary luck-bringers? Can a person really attract good luck, or avert misfortune, by wearing such things? Centuries of magical faith and experience, at any rate, support such beliefs. The form of many traditional amulets, such as the ankh cross and the swastika, goes back to a vast antiquity; and so does the belief in the occult virtues of precious stones.

There is an essential difference between a talisman and an amulet, although the two words are often regarded as meaning more or less the same thing. A talisman is believed to have some occult potency for attracting some benefit to its possessor; while an amulet wards off danger and misfortune.

Magicians throughout the ages have made and consecrated talismans for some particular purpose and old books of magic are full of designs and instructions for making talismans. Sometimes a powerful talisman was believed to be capable of both attracting good luck and repelling evil; but an amulet has always been an occult protection, especially against the dreaded power of the evil eye.

Precious stones have been used both as amulets and talismans. Apart from their natural beauty, rarity and value, they were believed by the magicians and occultists of bygone days to possess intrinsic virtues, which they could bestow upon those who wore them. This belief is implicit in the custom of each monarchy possessing its crown jewels or royal regalia and in the rings worn by bishops and other church dignitaries.

It appears also in the stories of many historic family heirlooms, especially among the old families of the more Celtic parts of the British Isles, namely Scotland, Wales and Ireland. Probably the most famous of such heirlooms is the Lee Penny, the heirloom of an ancient Scottish family, the Lockharts of Lee. This consists of a red stone mounted in the centre of a silver coin. It has long been believed to possess wonderful healing powers for the curing of diseased cattle; the method of its use being to immerse the talisman in water, and then give the water to the cattle to drink. Originally it was probably used for treating humans also.

The story attached to it says that it was brought home by one of the ancestors of the Lock harts of Lee who went to the Crusades and who received the stone as a ransom for a captured Saracen of high rank. However, the silver coin in which the red stone is mounted is an English groat of the reign of Edward IV; so its real origin is a mystery.

Among the English Crown Jewels is a wonderful stone of talismanic virtues, the Black Prince’s ruby. It may be seen today mounted in the Imperial State Crown, among all the other splendours enshrined in the Jewel House at the Tower of London. The Black Prince was given the stone by his ally, Pedro the Cruel, who was said to have stolen it from the King of Granada, whom he murdered. In the following century, King Henry V took the stone and had it mounted in a coronet, which he wore upon his helmet at the Battle of Agincourt.

The story goes that this coronet saved his life, because in the course of the battle a blow aimed at the king’s head was diverted by the coronet. Part of the coronet was broken off by the stroke; the very piece which contained the ruby. The story may be true or merely a romantic legend; but still today a mark may be seen upon the stone which might have been caused by the stroke of a sword.

The king was no doubt aware of the jewel’s talismanic virtues and chose it for this reason. The ruby is a stone of Mars, the planet which rules warfare and gives protection and victory in battle.

The astrological ruler ship of precious stones is an important factor in determining their virtues. Hence the idea of wearing one’s birth-stone, in order to attract the best characteristics of the sign of the Zodiac under which one was born. Every sign of the Zodiac has its good and bad side, its strengths and its weaknesses. No sign is lucky or unlucky in itself.

However, the lists of birth-stones displayed in jewellers’ windows are somewhat misleading, as they refer only to the month in which one was born, without mentioning the sign of the Zodiac. The changeover from one sign to another takes place around the 20th to the 22nd of each month. It varies a little each year, so that the precise time of the changeover can only be told by consulting an astrological ephemeris. (This is the name given to the yearly publications which supply detailed information of planetary movements, etc., for the use of astrologers).

Hence, a person born in March, for instance, may be under either Pisces or Aries, depending on which part of the month he or she was born in.

The list of birth-stones most generally agreed upon by jewellers is as follows:

January: Garnet.

February: Amethyst.

March: Bloodstone or Aquamarine.

April: Diamond.

May: Emerald.

June: Pearl or Moonstone.

July: Ruby.

August: Sardonyx or Peridot.

September: Sapphire.

October: Opal or Tourmaline.

November: Topaz.

December: Turqoise or Lapis Lazuli.

Few people realize the high antiquity from which such lists are derived. Their origin is to be found in the famous breastplate of precious stones worn by the High Priest of Israel, as described in the Bible (Exodus, Chapter 28). This consisted of four rows of jewels, three to each row. Josephus, the great Jewish historian, who wrote his Antiquities of the Jews in the first century AD, tells us that the stones of the breastplate signified the twelve months of the year and the twelve signs of the Zodiac; while the two great sardonyx stones that were in the clasps on the High Priest’s shoulders, symbolized the sun and the moon.

The Authorised Version of the Bible gives the stones of the breastplate as: a sardius, a topaz, and a carbuncle; an emerald, a sapphire, and a diamond; a ligure, an agate, and an amethyst; and a beryl, an onyx, and a jasper. Modern scholars, however, doubt the accuracy of this translation. They generally translate the list of stones as consisting of: carnelian, chrysolite and emerald; garnet, lapis lazuli and jasper (or possibly some form of corundum); jacinth, agate and amethyst; beryl, onyx and jade.

The custom of wearing birth-stones in modern times is thought to have originated in Poland, probably among the Jewish community there who traded in precious stones, and who were deeply interested in the mysticism of the sacred stones of the breastplate. It may have been spread throughout Europe by the fact that the Queen of France, wife of Louis XV, was the Polish Marie Leczinska; and the French court was the great centre of fashion and high society. So what the Queen of France wore and believed in was sure to be copied.

Here is an old Polish list of the birth-stones of the months, together with the particular virtue or blessing that each jewel was believed to bestow:

January: Garnet. Constancy.

February: Amethyst, Sincerity.

March: Bloodstone. Courage.

April: Diamond. Innocence.

May; Emerald. Success in love.

June: Agate. Health and long life.

July: Cornelian. Contentment.

August: Sardonyx. Happiness in marriage.

September: Chrysolite, Antidote to troubles of the mind.

October: Opal. Hope.

November: Topaz. Faithfulness.

December: Turquoise. Prosperity.

If we regard the bloodstone of March as being the obvious attribute of Aries (circa March 21st to April 21st), then we can interpret the rest of the stones accordingly, having found the starting-point of the Zodiac. Taurus takes the diamond, Gemini the emerald, Cancer the agate, Leo the cornelian, Virgo the sardonyx, Libra the chrysolite, Scorpio the opal, Sagittarius the topaz, Capricorn the turquoise, Aquarius the garnet and Pisces the amethyst.

The reason for associating the bloodstone with Aries is that it was a favourite talisman of soldiers and thus associated with Mars, the ruler of Aries. In addition to bestowing bravery upon its possessor, it was believed to have the power to staunch bleeding, when applied to wounds. The bloodstone is a smooth, opaque, greenish stone with little red specks in it, like spots of blood. Soldiers carried large bloodstones with them, which were smooth and rounded, of a suitable shape for binding on wounds. Their virtues were firmly believed in, and no doubt the coldness of the stone and the tight bandaging did help to stop bleeding, if the wound was not too severe.

Another stone particularly appropriate to Aries is the ruby, glowing red with the fire of Mars. Taurus (circa April 21st to May 21st) could compromise with the glittering or shining crystal, if diamonds are too costly; because crystal is ruled by the Moon, which is exalted in Taurus.

The emerald for Gemini is one of the most beautiful stones; but also, unfortunately, one of the most expensive. However, agates come in such great variety that they are often associated with versatile Mercury, the ruler of Gemini (circa May 21st to June 21st). I would definitely prefer the pearl or the moonstone to the agate as the mascot of Cancer (circa June 21st to July 21st), because this sign is ruled by the Moon. A strange thing about some agates is the way in which they display amazingly natural pictures in the stone, when it is cut and polished. I myself have seen a large nodule of agate which contained a startling likeness of a human eye—a natural amulet if ever there was one. This faculty of depicting things is an attribute of Mercury.

Warm, red cornelian certainly suits Leo (circa July 21st to August 21st); but so, I think, does amber, with its beautiful shades of red and gold. Leo is ruled by the Sun. The sardonyx for Virgo (circa August 21st to September 21st) is another stone which comes in variegated form, associating it with Mercury, the ruler of Virgo. It displays bands of white and red, which were often cleverly carved into cameos in times past; the white part being used for the figures while the red formed the background.

The chrysolite for Libra (circa September 21st to October 21st) literally means ’the golden stone’; but its colour actually varies from golden-yellow to olive-green. Perhaps the most beautiful variety of it is the light green stone called the peridot. The belief in its virtues as an antidote to troubles of the mind goes back to Roman times. The Romans wore peridots set in gold to protect them against melancholy and against illusions and fears, especially those caused by enchantment.

The opal is often regarded as being a rather sinister stone and it is certainly a very costly one. Hence people born under Scorpio (circa October 21st to November 21st) might care to take the alternative of aquamarine. The name of this stone means ’sea water’, and Scorpio is the fixed sign of water. Another alternative is serpentine, literally ’snakelike stone’, from its fancied resemblance to the markings of a snake; the serpent being one of the symbols of Scorpio.

The lovely topaz for Sagittarius, with all its warm shades of brownish-gold, could hardly fail to please. Nor is it excessively rare and costly. There is a variety of it found in Scotland and known as the cairngorm. However, if Jupiter ruling the natives of Sagittarius (circa November 21st to December 21st) makes them desire a richer talisman, then the heavenly blue of the sapphire certainly seems appropriate; because in mythology the god Jupiter or Zeus was ruler of the skies.

The turquoise for Capricorn (circa December 21st to January 21st) is a stone almost universally esteemed as an amulet. It is particularly valued by the Tibetans, who use it a great deal in jewellery. The Red Indians of North America know it also, and regard it as being a stone of magical virtues. It is one of those jewels of which legend says that it becomes pale when its owner is in danger, thus serving as a warning that some peril is at hand.

Other Capricornian stones are jet and black onyx. Real jet has similar electrical properties to amber; hence its old name of ’black amber’. It is one of the oldest of magical stones; necklaces of polished jet have been found in prehistoric graves. However, the buyer should beware, because much that is sold as jet is really only black glass. One of the homes of real jet is Whit by, in Yorkshire, where attractive jewellery of jet is still obtainable.

As for the mysterious black onyx, this is a stone which seems to have stolen something of midnight itself and enclosed it in its shining surface. In ancient days, a concave piece of highly polished black onyx was used as a magic mirror, more potent even than a crystal ball to induce clairvoyance. The famous ’show-stone’ of the Elizabethan magician, Dr. Dee, was a mirror of this type; though accounts differ as to just what mineral it was made of. Sometimes the black onyx displays bands of white and it can then be skilfully cut and polished to resemble an eye—another potent amulet against the peril of the evil eye, which was so much dreaded by people of olden times.

The stone given for Aquarius (circa January 21st to February 21st), the garnet, is both beautiful and reasonably within the means of most people. However, it is rather hard to see its relevance to the airy sign of Aquarius, ruled by Saturn and Uranus; though the garnet’s fiery red glow, like a burning ember, is welcome in the coldest days of winter, which occur in the time of year that Aquarius rules. My own feeling is that the garnet is more suitable for Capricorn, the sign in which fiery Mars is exalted.

Other possible Aquarian stones are the whitish-blue chalcedony, with its resemblance to a lightly-clouded blue sky, and the blue zircon, which shows the bright electric blue of Uranus. However, perhaps the most ’heavenly’ stone of all appropriate to Aquarius, the fixed sign of air, is the star sapphire, which displays in its polished blue depths the perfect image of a star, surrounded by shining rays of light, which cross inside the stone to produce the ’star’. These are believed in the East to represent the powers of Faith, Hope and Destiny. Hence the star sapphire is one of the most wonderful and potent of talismanic stones, attracting good fortune and warding off evil.

The amethyst for Pisces (circa February 21st to March 21st) is one of the stones ruled by Jupiter, the planet that rules Pisces, and hence it is fully appropriate, its rich purple and violet hues according well with the rather mystical tendencies of the sign of Pisces. It is a favourite stone for the rings worn by bishops and other highly-placed ecclesiastics. It has a calming and soothing influence and a time-honoured legend says of it that it preserves its wearer from drunkenness and excessive passions.

Another precious substance appropriate to Pisces is coral; because the co-ruler of Pisces is Neptune, and it is a watery sign. Iridescent shell, of which modern jewellery is sometimes made, would be harmonious with Pisces also.

Some other beautiful and reasonably priced gem-stones are the apple-green chrysoprase, the rose quartz, and the tawny golden-striped crocidolite. The delicate green of chrysoprase is the green of growing things, of new life. I feel that it would be appropriate to Virgo, with its suggestion of youth and virginity. Rose quartz is suggestive of Venus; it is the colour of sentiment and romance, and hence would be appropriate to Libra, the sign ruled by Venus. (Taurus is also ruled by Venus; but rose quartz seems to me more in harmony with airy Libra than earthy Taurus). The golden gleams of crocidolite make it a natural choice for natives of the Sun’s own sign, Leo.

The lore of precious stones is an inexhaustible subject; but I hope that enough has been said here to enable readers to make a choice of a talismanic gem-stone which will be both suitable to the time of their nativity, and within their price-range. Those who wish to study further will find much helpful and fascinating information in the following books:

The Curious Lore of Precious Stones, by George Frederick Kunz (first published 1913, reprinted by Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1971).

Amulets and Talismans, by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge (first published 1930, reprinted by Collier Books, New York, 1970).

The Book of Talismans, Amulets and Zodiacal Gems, by William Thomas and Kate Pavitt (Riders, London, 1922 and recently reprinted).

Apart from precious stones and their virtues, there are other time-honoured amulets and talismans, consisting of things in some form or design which is believed to be magical. For instance, we see jewellery produced in the shape of the ankh cross, the swastika, the scarab, the Hand of Fatima, the horseshoe, the four-leaved clover, the two interlaced triangles which form the Star of David and so on. All these are loosely described as ’lucky charms’; but what is their real meaning?

Some of them, like the ankh cross and the scarab, go back to ancient Egypt. Others, like the swastika, may be even older. It is a great pity that the swastika has become unpopular, as a result of its adoption by the followers of Adolf Hitler; because it is one of the most venerable and world-wide symbols. Its distribution on both sides of the Atlantic has caused some occultists to believe that it originated in the lost continent of Atlantis.

The swastika is known to the American Indians, who regard it as a sacred and magical sign. It also appears among the remains of prehistoric Mexico, notably upon many of the famous stone tablets discovered by William Niven and described by Colonel James Churchward in his books about that other sunken continent, Mu or Lemuria. Indeed, to record all the various manifestations of this mysterious symbol would need a chapter to itself. It can be found upon the thrones of Tibetan lamas of high rank and upon very old church bells in English belfries. The people of ancient China revered it, and so did the people of Troy. Its name, swastika, comes from Sanskrit, the sacred language of India, and means happiness, well-being, good luck.

Some particularly interesting forms of the swastika are those which appear upon the mysterious stone monuments of prehistoric Scotland. These are generally attributed to the Picts. A notable example is the Newton Stone, found in Aberdeenshire, which displays a swastika surrounded by an inscription in an unknown alphabet.

One of the most famous talismans of the ancient East was the signet ring of Jenghis Khan, a large gold ring set with a magnificent ruby, upon which was engraved the sign of the swastika. It was preserved with the greatest care and secrecy among the Buddhist lamas of Mongolia, as its possession was believed to confer great power and protection.

That great nineteenth-century occultist, Madame Blavatsky, explains the swastika as being basically an equal-armed cross, a symbol far older than Christianity. The upright line represents the masculine influence, the horizontal line the feminine one. From the union of two opposites, masculine and feminine, positive and negative, comes all manifestation. Then lines are added to the cross, signifying motion, the Wheel of Life, or cyclic law. Thus the swastika appears, with its four arms symbolizing birth, life, death, and immortality. There are also the four winds, the four seasons and the four elements; and all these are summed up in the swastika.

Much argument has taken place over the question of which way the arms of the swastika should point, to the right or to the left. Some say the former is most beneficent and fortunate and some say the latter. Both forms are found in ancient art, and apparently regarded as being equally sacred. Hitler favoured the swastika with arms pointing to the right; but the swastika adopted by Madame Blavatsky as part of the emblem of the Theosophical Society points in the other direction.

The ankh cross is the ancient Egyptian symbol of life and immortality. The gods and goddesses of Egypt are generally depicted holding this emblem in their hands, grasping it by the loop as if it were a key; hence it is sometimes called ’The Key of Life’. It occurs in hieroglyphic inscriptions as the symbol meaning ’life’; for instance, in the royal cartouche of the Pharaoh Tutankh-amun, whose name has been translated by Egyptologists as meaning ’The Living Image of Amen’.

Like the swastika, the ankh cross dates back to unknown antiquity. Some authorities have believed it to be a conventionalized figure of a sandal-strap, symbolizing the power to go, to travel onwards; and conveying the idea of the human soul as the pilgrim of eternity. However, it seems perhaps more likely that the ankh cross represents the union of male and female, the creative powers of life. The looped part of the ankh, by its oval shape, signifies the opening of the vagina; while the T-shaped part is a simplified figure of the penis and testicles.

There are many ancient amulets which were quite openly made in the shape of the human genital organs. They were life symbols and hence luck symbols. However, the highly evolved and delicate art of ancient Egypt portrayed the ankh cross as an artistic, hieroglyphic form of a primordial idea.

The Magician evoking a spirit. Note seal of Solomon design on front of altar

The scarab is another ancient Egyptian amulet of tremendous antiquity. It represents the god Kephra, the sun at night, hidden below the horizon yet potent to come forth and bring the dawn. He was represented as a beetle, because of the habits of this insect, which the Egyptians regarded as sacred. Beetles have beautiful, iridescent wing-cases which reflect the light like jewels; they fly about at dusk, when the sun is sinking, and most important of all, this particular beetle, the scarab, lays its eggs in the dung of animals, which it then rolls into a ball bigger than itself.

The Egyptians saw the little insect propelling this ball with its hind legs; and they compared it to the mysterious power which propelled the sun on its apparent course. They saw the ball eventually pushed into a hole in the ground, even as the sun disappeared beneath the western horizon. Then, one day, the eggs would hatch within their warm cover and new life burst forth; even as the sun was reborn each morning.

Hence the scarab became a potent symbol of resurrection, of eternal life; and, naturally, it is frequently found interred with Egyptian mummies. But it was also a popular amulet for the living. The flat underside of the scarab was often engraved with words of magical power, or with the name of a Pharaoh.

The amulet might be made from some semi-precious stone, such as cornelian; or it might be of stone or pottery, coloured with a blue or green glaze. Like many Egyptian amulets, it would often have a hole pierced through it, so that it could be conveniently hung round the neck or set in a ring.

Throughout Moslem countries today, and for many centuries past, a popular amulet is the conventionalized figure of a hand. It may be seen hung upon the wall of a living-room; or a smaller version is worn round the neck. These amulets are often beautifully made of gold or silver-gilt filigree work, and set with precious stones. They are called the Hand of Fatima, out of respect for Fatima, the daughter of Mohammed. Actually, however, the hand as an amulet is even older than the days when Mohammed was founding the religion of Islam.

It derives from the natural gesture of raising the hand to ward off evil, especially the peril of the evil eye. Such protective hands are often set with bright blue turquoises, for this reason. The colour blue, the clear hue of heaven, is believed throughout the East to have the power of averting evil occult influence, as already noted in Chapter V.

A familiar talismanic figure is the two interlaced triangles which form the Star of David, the symbol of the Jewish religion. This six-pointed star, formed by the two triangles, is also called the Seal of Solomon. The Biblical King Solomon was believed in the ancient world to have been a great magician, able to command powerful genii and even demons and force them to do his bidding. Two of the most famous grimoires, or books of ceremonial magic, are called The Key of Solomon the King, and The Goetia, or Lesser Key of Solomon. Whether in fact either book really had anything to do with King Solomon is highly problematical. However, the basic form of the six-pointed star occurs over and over again in ancient books of magic; and always as a powerful amulet to protect the magician against evil forces.

It is probably even older than the time of King Solomon, because it is also found in the age-old magical lore of India. The Indian form of it shows the symbol of the sun in the centre of the interlaced triangles. The modern Jewish version sometimes displays in the centre the Hebrew letters of the word Mazeltov, meaning ’good luck’.

The upward-pointing triangle is the elemental symbol of fire, the downward-pointing one that of water. Fire is regarded as a masculine element and water as a feminine one. So we have again the idea of the union of masculine and feminine, displayed this time in the form of interlaced triangles. Also, when the symbol of the sun is drawn in the centre of the figure, we have the implied presence of the six other visible heavenly bodies of greatest significance, distributed around the points of the star; namely, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Mercury and the Moon. These together with the Sun make up the sacred seven whose influence is so important in all ancient magic.

Another important magical sigil is the five-pointed star, called the Pentagram or Pentacle. This, too, may be found as a piece of magical jewellery; though perhaps not so frequently as the Seal of Solomon. In mediaeval times, it acquired the curious name of the Goblins’ Cross; and it was also called the Endless Knot, because it can be drawn in one continuous line, without lifting the pen from the paper. Like the Seal of Solomon, it was believed to be a potent amulet against evil; but for this purpose it had to be drawn with one point upwards. It then represented the power of the spirit ruling over the four elements of the material world.

The Upright Pentagram, the Blazing Star of White Magic, drawn in the form of the Endless Knot

The Pentagram was drawn in this way, or a representation of it hung, at the doors and windows of houses, to keep out evil spirits. In the old folk-song, “Green Grow the Rushes, O!”, occurs the line, “Five is the symbol at your door”—referring to this time-honoured use of the magical Pentagram.

Leaves of the lucky four-leaved clover are sometimes worn enclosed in a locket, or a representation of the leaf in gold or silver may be seen. How this little plant acquired such a magical reputation is not exactly known; but the old folk rhyme about it runs as follows:

One leaf for fame,

And one for wealth,

And one for a faithful lover,

And one to bring you glorious health,

Are all in a four-leaved clover.

The lucky horseshoe is really a form of the crescent, which derives its fortunate influence from the moon goddess. Whether called Isis, Diana, Artemis, Tanith, Ishtar, Astarte, Hecate, Cerridwen, or any of the myriad of names by which she was known, the moon goddess was the ancient mistress of magic and enchantment. The figures of the lunar crescent and the horse appear together on ancient British coins, notably those minted by the Iceni, the people of Queen Boadicea.

The horseshoe also carries with it the magic of the smith and his craft. All good blacksmiths were supposed to be natural magicians. Our Anglo-Saxon ancestors delighted in the tales of Wayland the Smith and his magical powers. In later years, with the spread of Christianity, legends were told of doughty St Dunstan, who worked as a blacksmith and had frequent magical contests with the Devil. Cold iron, especially in the form of a horseshoe, was a protection against the mischief of the fairies and all sorts of uncanny beings.

The luckiest horseshoe is that which you find yourself, by accident, cast upon the road. You should nail it up over your door, for luck; but be sure to have the ends of the horseshoe pointing upwards, or the luck will run out. Only the blacksmith himself is privileged to hang a lucky horseshoe with the ends down, to pour out the luck upon the forge.

A potent natural amulet and talisman for good fortune, is a piece of lodestone. This is iron ore containing natural magnetic properties, hence it is sometimes called magnetite. Though not as strong as a manufactured magnet, it will nevertheless pick up steel pins and needles. In appearance, it is a mere rough, blueish-grey stone with metallic veins in it; yet an old rhyme pays tribute to its magical virtues:

The lodestone is the stone, the only stone alone,

Deserving praise above the rest, whose virtues are unknown.

The diamond bright, the sapphire brave, are stones that bear the name;

But flatter not, and tell the truth, lodestone deserves the same.

To carry a lodestone was believed to bestow health, vigour and sexual attractiveness. It strengthened magical powers and dispelled evil spirits. Wealthy magicians wore their lodestone in a little cage of gold or silver filigree, hung from a chain around the neck. The less wealthy carried it in a small bag of soft leather, together with some magical herbs. This might be hung from a string round the neck, or worn somehow close to the skin. Sometimes the bag contained a pair of small, twin lodestones, cleaving together by their own magnetic power. This was considered to be a very potent charm to attract love.

One often sees rings, bracelets and necklaces fashioned in the form of a snake, or of two serpents intertwined. This is another form of jewellery that was originally magical, though today often worn merely for ornament. The sacred serpent appears upon the crowns of Egyptian Pharaohs and in the temple carvings of ancient India. Hermes, the herald of the gods of Greece and patron of magic, is portrayed carrying the caduceus, a wand with two serpents twined about it.

In the latter case, the twin serpents represent the two interacting forces, positive and negative, which manifest throughout nature—a basic idea which we have seen frequently repeated in different forms.

The snake is also a symbol of spiritual power. To the people of olden time, it seemed a mysterious creature, because of the way in which it glided without legs. Anyone who watches a serpent travelling over the ground with amazing speed, must feel something of this strangeness. Moreover, the serpent renews itself by shedding its complete skin and this habit has caused it to become the emblem of rebirth and immortality.

It is widely believed that snakes can hypnotize birds and small animals, so that they become entranced and allow the snake to swallow them. Thus the snake has come to represent mysterious occult power and as such, it is frequently depicted upon the paraphernalia of magic. Sometimes the serpent is shown holding its tail in its mouth. The Greeks called this figure of the encircled serpent the Ouroborous and regarded it as a symbol of infinity and eternity.