The Encyclopedia of Spices and Herbs: An Essential Guide to the Flavors of the World - Padma Lakshmi (2016)

SPICES, HERBS, AND BLENDS FROM A TO Z

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PREVIOUS SPREAD, CLOCKWISE FROM TOP: ground mahlab, marjoram, mastic, dried mace blades, whole mahlab kernels, mint, marathi moggu, and mustard seeds

MACE

BOTANICAL NAME: Myristica fragrans

FORMS: whole dried blades and ground

The nutmeg tree, native to the Spice Islands, is the source of a second lesser-known spice as well, and that is mace. (See Nutmeg for more about the history and provenance of the tree, as well as more details on the harvesting process.) The seed, or kernel, nestled inside the fruit of the tree is enveloped in a lacy covering, or aril, of what are called mace blades, which are bright red when the fruit is first split open. This covering is carefully removed, pressed flat, and dried in the sun in a matter of hours. Then the mace is either left whole or ground. The fully dried blades are an orange-red or orange-yellow; ground mace is orangey-brown in color.

Like nutmeg, mace has a warm fragrance and a similarly warming taste, but it is somewhat lighter, fresher, and more aromatic; it has a slightly bitter undertone. In Western markets, ground mace is by far the more common form of the spice, and that is the way it is used in most cuisines. It is difficult to grind the blades at home; if you want to attempt that, use a spice grinder rather than a mortar and pestle.

CHARMOULA AND OTHER SPICE PASTES

There are dozens of spice blends made with dried spices, from garam masala to quatre épices, but some classic seasoning blends from around the world are made with fresh ingredients as well and pounded or processed to a paste. Here are some that you might like to try.

CHARMOULA (also spelled chermoula) is a hallmark of Moroccan cooking, used as both a marinade, usually for fish or shellfish, and a condiment or table sauce. A basic version might include cumin and coriander seeds, paprika, salt, garlic, lemon juice, and oil (shown at left [1] is a blend of ground charmoula spices). Some also include cayenne or chiles for more heat, and/or ginger, and often fresh herbs, such as cilantro and parsley, are added. There is a charmoula made with fresh mint, and another one with tomatoes. Usually the ingredients are pounded to a paste using a mortar and pestle (or, today, in a blender), but occasionally the consistency is more like that of a chunky salsa. There are also cooked versions, simmered into sauce. Traditionally, charmoula was used to preserve certain foods as well as to season them, and those versions usually included vinegar. All are vibrant and delicious.

HARISSA [2, ground dried chiles and spices; 3, paste] is a fiery-hot Tunisian spice paste that is also widely used in Moroccan and Algerian cooking; precise blends may vary from cook to cook or country to country. It most often accompanies tagines and couscous, but it is also served as a table condiment—to be used sparingly! Dried hot chiles and garlic are the base ingredients, and the other seasonings usually include cumin, coriander, and caraway seeds; many versions contain mint. The chiles are soaked and drained, then pounded or blended with the other ingredients, along with olive oil. Regional variations abound; some versions include paprika, others add cassia/cinnamon.

JAMAICAN JERK SEASONING [4] may simply be a combination of ground and crushed spices used as a dry rub, but a more common version is a wet marinade made with scallions and/or onions, fresh chiles, and often garlic. In all cases, allspice is an essential seasoning; other spices may include cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, and/or cloves, along with salt. Once the ingredients are pounded or blended to a paste, water or even rum may be added for a looser consistency. The meat of choice, usually chicken or pork, is rubbed with the paste and allowed to marinate for an hour or more before it is grilled. Some cooks add tamarind, others include brown or white sugar; the variations are many and personal.

ZHUG (or zhoug) [5] is a spicy Yemenite paste that is used both as a marinade or rub for grilled fish or meat and as a table condiment for various dishes. It is also served with flatbreads. The heat may be on the milder side or intense, depending on the cook and the dish. A basic mix includes both hot chiles and milder peppers, coriander and cardamom seeds, garlic, fresh cilantro, and, sometimes, lemon juice. The fresh ingredients are chopped as necessary and then all are blended or pounded to a paste. Zhug is sometimes combined with tomatoes to make a sauce.

Mace is used to flavor both sweet and savory dishes. The whole blades can be used to infuse cream or milk for a custard and then strained out; they can also flavor stocks or soups. Whole blades are also added to braises and other slow-cooked meat dishes. Ground mace can be used as the seasoning for a béchamel sauce, rather than the traditional nutmeg, and it is good in other creamy sauces. It is an ingredient in many cakes, cookies, and other baked goods, as well as in fillings for pumpkin or squash pies. It pairs well with seafood and poultry, and in the Middle East, it often seasons lamb or mutton dishes.

MAHLAB

BOTANICAL NAME: Prunus mahaleb

OTHER NAMES: mahleb, mahlebi, mahlepi, St. Lucie’s cherry

FORMS: whole kernels and ground

This unusual spice is actually the pits of the fruits of a tall wild cherry tree that is native to southern Europe and Turkey. The cherries are small, sour, and so tart that they are usually harvested only for their pits. Today, the trees grow mainly in Iran, Turkey, and Syria and across the Mediterranean region.

The pits, which are about ¼ inch long, oval, and slightly tear shaped, are blanched and dried, then left whole or ground. Whole pits, which are pale brown on the outside and white inside, are quite aromatic, with a sweet, flowery fragrance that evokes cherries and almonds. They are soft and chewy and taste a bit like cherries, with a nutty bitter-almond undertone; the aftertaste, though, can be quite bitter. Ground mahlab may be slightly coarse or as fine as flour, and it ranges from creamy white to pale tan in color. The powder loses its fragrance and flavor quite quickly, so it’s best to buy mahlab whole and grind it yourself before using.

Mahlab is used in Greek, Turkish, and Middle Eastern baked goods, and sometimes in ice creams (especially chocolate). In Greece and Turkey, it is an ingredient in breads, particularly festive Easter breads, and in cakes and cookies. Because it is so aromatic, a pinch or so of the powder is all that is needed in most recipes. In Egypt, mahlab flavors a sweet paste made with sesame seeds, nuts, and honey, and in many countries, it flavors pastries and sweets eaten to celebrate the end of Ramadan. Mahlab is also used in some savory preparations, including rice dishes.

MAKRUT

See Kaffir Lime Leaves.

MANGO POWDER

See Amchur.

MARAS CHILE

See Red Pepper Flakes.

MARATHI MOGGU

BOTANICAL NAME: Bombax ceiba

OTHER NAMES: kapok buds, Andhra mogga, karer, shalmali, semul

FORMS: dried buds

Marathi moggu are the dried unopened buds of a tree popularly known as the red silk cotton tree or cotton tree, or, sometimes, the kapok tree. The tree is native to South India, specifically the state of Karnataka, and the buds are used in the cooking of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh but rarely seen elsewhere.

The dried buds look somewhat like fat nails or, perhaps, tiny plump sabers with long handles. They are dark brown and hard. Marathi moggu buds are sometimes described as a type of caper, but they are not at all related. The flavor is something like a combination of mustard and black pepper.

Marathi moggu buds are used in traditional southern Indian recipes, including biryanis and other rice dishes. The buds may be fried in oil before other ingredients are added, but they are more often first toasted and ground and then combined with other spices. They are an ingredient in some curry and masala mixes.

MARJORAM

BOTANICAL NAME: Origanum majorana

OTHER NAMES: sweet marjoram, knotted marjoram

FORMS: fresh and dried leaves

Like its close cousin oregano, marjoram is an ancient herb native to the Mediterranean. A member of the mint family, it is a perennial that bears tiny white flowers in the summer. The deep green leaves are aromatic and somewhat reminiscent of thyme. Sweet marjoram is the most common variety, but knotted marjoram flourishes in many herb gardens; the type called pot marjoram has a less agreeable taste and is better passed over for either of the other two. The flavor of marjoram is somewhat more delicate than that of oregano, but as is true of oregano, its flavor intensifies when dried. Some cooks prefer the more concentrated taste of dried marjoram to fresh.

Marjoram can be used in many of the same ways as oregano. It is especially popular in Italy and Greece, where it seasons tomato-based sauces and other dishes. It is an ingredient in various Italian herb blends and is sometimes added to a bouquet garni. Marjoram is good with fatty meats like pork and with duck and goose, as well as in poultry stuffings. It pairs well with other Mediterranean herbs such as rosemary, sage, savory, thyme, and, of course, oregano.

MASTIC

BOTANICAL NAME: Pistacia lentiscus

OTHER NAMES: gum mastic, mastiha, mastika, mastekah, miskeh

FORMS: tears (drops)

Mastic is the hardened resin of various species of the gum mastic tree, a hardy evergreen native to the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Today, however, most mastic comes from the Greek island of Chios, where production is still largely a family affair but is strictly controlled by the Gum Mastic Growers’ Association (mastic from the Chios growers has been trademarked under the Greek name mastiha).

To tap the resin, cuts are made in the bark of the trees over a two- or three-month period from July into August and sometimes September, and the resin that emerges gradually coagulates (similarly to asafoetida). Then it is sorted, cleaned, washed, and dried. Larger pieces, referred to as pita, are sometimes sold in markets in Greece. The more common form is small tears that range from ⅛ to ½ inch long.

Dried gum mastic is very pale golden-yellow, translucent, and hard. It should be stored in a cool, dry place to prevent it from turning cloudy and losing flavor. The tears can be chewed like chewing gum as a mouth freshener (mastic is used commercially in chewing gums and toothpastes); they will soften and turn bright white and opaque. Mastic’s culinary uses in Greece, Turkey, and other eastern Mediterranean countries include desserts such as ice creams, puddings, and cakes, for which it is pounded with sugar, lemon juice, and orange blossom water or rose water, as well as Turkish delight, the popular sweet. It flavors breads, including a Greek festival bread, and some savory dishes, and it is an ingredient in liqueurs such as the eponymous Greek mastiha.

MEDICINAL USES: Chewing mastic can soothe an upset stomach. Some practitioners credit mastic with improving liver function, and it has been claimed to help reduce cholesterol levels. It is used as an antiseptic in dentistry.

MELEGUETA PEPPER

See Grains of Paradise.

METHI

See Fenugreek and Fenugreek Seeds.

MIDDLE EASTERN FIVE-SPICE MIX

See Quatre Épices.

MINT

BOTANICAL NAMES: Mentha spicata/M. crispa/M. viridis (spearmint); M. piperata officinalis (peppermint)

FORMS: fresh and dried leaves

MINT TEA Pour 1 cup boiling water over 1 teaspoon crushed dried mint and steep for 5 minutes. Enjoy hot, or let cool and pour over ice for a refreshing summer drink.

There are hundreds of varieties of mint, but spearmint, which is native to Europe and Asia, is the one used most often in the kitchen. It is an ancient perennial, known to the early Greeks and Romans and mentioned in the Bible. Its name comes from the shape of its narrow green leaves, although there is a type of spearmint with rounder leaves. Its fragrance is refreshing, as is its flavor, which is sweet and less pungent than that of many other mints. (All mints contain menthol, the source of the mint flavor.) Peppermint is a more recent variety, dating back to the 1600s and believed to be a cross between spearmint and water mint. Mint self-hybridizes easily, resulting in the dozens of mints found around the world. Peppermint has darker leaves and a stronger menthol flavor than spearmint, and it is more often used for desserts and sweets (as well as for throat lozenges and medicines). Of the other mints of culinary interest are apple mint, which has a milder flavor; pineapple mint (which, confusingly, is sometimes called apple mint), with a slightly fruity taste; and the various citrus mints—as well as chocolate mint, which does have a faint scent of chocolate. (Note that what is called Vietnamese mint, rau ram, is not in fact a mint at all but is instead in the same family as sorrel.)

The fresh mint sold in the market is most often spearmint, and dried mint is usually spearmint as well. Drying the herb seems to concentrate its flavor, though its aroma and taste will dissipate after several months. Dried mint is sometimes referred to as “rubbed” mint, as the leaves are rubbed off the stems once they have dried. Avoid any packages with evident pieces of pale stems.

Mint complements meats such as pork and veal, as well as chicken, and, of course, lamb paired with mint is a classic. But that doesn’t have to mean roast lamb with bright green mint jelly—there are delicious mint sauces, and Mediterranean cuisines use mint in marinades and rubs for grilled lamb. Mint flavors many dishes in Morocco and the Middle East. In India, mint chutneys and relishes are very popular, as is a raita made with yogurt, mint, and cucumber. Mint is delicious with buttered steamed potatoes and good in chilled soups like pea or cream of cucumber. Spearmint or peppermint is often added to fruit salads, and mint is a lovely addition to a lemon tart or other citrus dessert. Crème de menthe and other liqueurs are based on mint. Mint green tea is served in almost every household in Morocco, with accompanying ritual, and mint tea is a soothing, refreshing drink much loved throughout much of the Middle East, Turkey, and beyond.

MEDICINAL USES: Mint is relatively high in vitamins A and C and a good source of iron, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, among other minerals. Mint tea is often prescribed as a digestive or stimulant.

MUSTARD

BOTANICAL NAMES: Brassica alba or B. hirta, Sinapis alba (white or yellow); B. juncea (brown); B. nigra (black)

OTHER NAMES: Chinese mustard, Indian mustard (brown mustard)

FORMS: whole seeds, cracked seeds, and ground

There are three main types of mustard plant, all of which are Brassicas, members of the same family as cabbage and broccoli. White (aka yellow) mustard, the most familiar to Westerners, is probably native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean, but it grows throughout Europe and North America; Canada is one of the largest producers today. (Because the mustard plant now grows in most temperate zones, the precise origins of the three types are subject to some debate.) Brown mustard is indigenous to India and China but is now grown in Great Britain, the United States, and throughout the central latitudes. Black mustard is native to Asia and India; because, unlike white and brown mustard, it is difficult to harvest mechanically, it is grown on a much smaller scale than the other two types. Mustard is an ancient plant—Pliny wrote about its medicinal benefits in first-century Rome, where it was also used as a condiment. It has been cultivated in Europe for centuries, and it was one of the most popular spices in medieval kitchens.

The mustard plant is an annual, and all varieties produce yellow flowers (those of white mustard are bright yellow; brown mustard flowers are paler); a field of mustard in bloom is a beautiful sight. The white mustard plant is the smallest, reaching about 3 feet; brown and black mustards can grow as tall as 9 feet. The seedpods contain from six to twelve seeds, depending on the variety. The seeds are harvested when the pods have matured but are not fully ripened, as they, especially those of black mustard, can shatter easily if left on the plant longer. The cut plants are then allowed to dry and threshed.

The tiny yellow to pale brown seeds of the white mustard plant are the largest of the three. Unlike other spices, mustard seeds have almost no aroma, because the enzyme that gives mustard its hot, sharp flavor is activated only when it comes into contact with a liquid. Black mustard seeds are the most pungent, followed by the brown and then yellow seeds. (The word mustard is believed to have come from the Latin term mustum ardens, meaning “burning must.”) The brown seeds have a slightly bitter edge. Mustard powder can be made from any type of seeds or a combination. The seeds are finely ground and, for the finest result (also called mustard flour), sifted to remove the husks. Colman’s dry mustard powder from England is one of the most highly regarded; it is a blend of finely ground yellow and brown mustard seeds. Cracked mustard seeds are also sometimes available in the market.

Mustard seeds are used in many Indian curries and other dishes. They are usually added at the beginning of cooking, heated in hot oil until they pop before the other seasonings and ingredients go into the pan. Mustard seeds that have been crushed to a paste are used in spicy Bengali marinades and pastes; the seeds are also an ingredient in the Bengali spice blend panch phoron. Mustard oil is used in Indian cooking, but it is a neutral oil, not a hot one as you might expect; it is cold-pressed from brown mustard seeds. Ghee or cooking oil that has been infused with the flavor of mustard seeds, as described above, is used as a rub or coating for roasted chicken, beef, or lamb. Whole mustard seeds are used for pickling in many cuisines. When cracked or coarsely ground, they may be added to rubs for grilled or roasted meats. The seeds have an affinity for cabbage, which is not surprising, given that they are members of the same family, and they are often an ingredient in potato salads. Mustard powder is added to many vinaigrettes, both for flavor and to aid emulsification.

To make homemade mustard from mustard powder, always use cold water, not hot, which would kill the enzymes that give mustard its flavor. Add enough water to give you the desired consistency and let stand for 10 minutes to bring out the flavor. The pungency will diminish on standing, so homemade mustard is best used the day it is made. Commercial mustards, of course, remain shelf-stable for months.

MEDICINAL USES: A mustard poultice is a traditional folk remedy, rubbed on the chest to help relieve colds and congestion. Mustard is believed to be a diuretic and a stimulant. It is important in Ayurvedic medicine, said to improve digestion, increase circulation, and ease painful muscles and joints, among many other benefits.