NEPENTHES- Cultivating Carnivorous Plants (2015)

Cultivating Carnivorous Plants (2015)

NEPENTHES

The ferocious smile of Nepenthes bicalcarata.

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The Tropical Pitcher Plant, the

genus Nepenthes, is probably the best

known carnivorous plant besides the

Venus Flytrap. Tropical Pitcher Plants

first captured the Western world’s

widespread attention in Victorian

times

when

Veitch

Nursery

introduced the genus Nepenthes into

cultivation across Europe’s hot

houses. Nepenthes would quickly

capture the world’s attention, and

even today Nepenthes regularly make

the news, mostly due to the discovery

of a new species or because of new

photographs of particularly large

pitchers feasting upon large prey.

The first described species of the

genus, Nepenthes madagascariensis, was

identified by the French colonial

N. stenophylla

governor of Madagascar, Étienne de

Flacourt, in his 1648 Histoire de la Grande Isle de Madagascar.

After this publication, several other species were described

before Carl Linnaeus named the genus Nepenthes after the

drug Nepenthe, which chases away sorrow, in the Odyssey,

stating:

If this is not Helen’s Nepenthes, it

certainly will be for all botanists. What

botanist would not be filled with

admiration if, after a long journey, he

should find this wonderful plant.

Today, there are 159 recognized

species of Nepenthes, with several more

undescribed and several populations

of natural hybrids that appear to be

self-sustaining. In total, there may well

be more than 200 species of Nepenthes

throughout Southeast Asia.

Interestingly,

fossil

evidence

suggests that, during the Paleocene

Epoch (66 million to 56 million years

ago), at least three species of Nepenthes

N. adnata25

- or Nepenthes-like plants - existed in

Europe. Not much is known about these species, other than

their pollen structure, but the widespread abundance of

Nepenthes truncata

fossilized pollen from the form taxon Droseridites (which

includes extinct plants probably affiliated with the Droseraceae

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(Sundew Family) and Nepenthaceae ( Nepenthes Family)) suggests that Nepenthes-like plants had a greater

distribution 60 million years ago than they do today.

From a grower’s perspective, the genus Nepenthes presents fewer challenges than one might expect for a

genus native to the tropical islands of the Pacific. Many actually grow quite well on a windowsill with very

little special treatment.

Generally speaking, all Nepenthes can be divided into one of two categories - highland or lowland. The

majority of species are highland plants. The two categories differ largely in terms of temperature and

humidity. Lowland plants experience hot days, warm nights without much of a temperature drop, and high

humidity. They are the quintessential “jungle plant,” except, rather than growing in a hot, humid, and shaded

area, most lowland Nepenthes grow in hot, humid, and sunny areas.

One of the few difficult-to-cultivate lowland plants, Nepenthes northiana.

In contrast, highland plants are more variable in temperature and humidity. They experience cooler days,

with maximums reaching around 80° F (~26° C), and even cooler nights. Night time temperatures drop, on

average, 20° F (~7° C), and hover around 55° - 60° F (12° - 15° C), or lower. Most can be grown with lower

humidity levels than lowland plants, but some, usually the ones with more unusual pitchers, require high

humidity levels. Like their lowland cousins, highland plants like lots of light.

Whether lowland or highland, every Nepenthes is essentially a vine that starts out as a tiny, thin and brown

seed designed to be carried on the wind. Germination results in the formation of a tiny rosette, consisting of

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several very short, tapered leaves that end in

miniature pitchers. Most plants will be barely larger

than any letter on this page for the first few months

of life.

In time, new leaves will form from the central

rosette. If conditions are good, each leaf or pitcher

grows slightly larger than the last, although it is not

uncommon for plants to have several leaves and

pitchers of the same size. In time, the plant will grow

to be several inches (centimeters) in diameter.

Typically, this takes a year or two for lowland plants

and two-to-three years for highland plants.

After a several inch diameter plant has formed,

the plant will either begin to climb via the production

of leaves along a climbing stem or continue to grow

even larger leaves in the rosette pattern. What

happens depends on the parentage of the individual

plant. Some, such as Nepenthes gracilis, will begin to

climb immediately, whereas others, such as Nepenthes

bicalcarata, will grow much larger before forming any

kind of stem.

As the plant grows, its growth occurs only from

a central growth tip. If the growth tip is damaged or

destroyed, the plant may either begin to grow via a

secondary growth tip or form a basal offshoot. The

growth type depends on the parent species and the

age of the plant. Basal offshoots often form naturally

without damage to the main growing tip in species

such as Nepenthes ampullaria and other species as the

plant grows larger, and the main growing tip gets

further away from the base of the plant.

Germination to flowering typically takes five to

ten years, depending on the parent species. Usually,

lowland species grow much faster than highland

species, which are accustomed to lower temperatures

and slower growth rates, than the lowland species,

Nepenthes ‘Lady Pauline’

which constantly face threats of jungle encroachment.

Maturation of the plant is often marked by the formation of pitchers that look different from juvenile

pitchers. At the juvenile stage, most Nepenthes have remarkably similar pitchers. Once the plants start getting

larger, the pitchers of different species become more distinct. The first mature pitchers, the “lower” pitchers,

often attach to the leaf via a front-facing tendril. This pitchers are typically more bulbous and sit on the forest

floor. As the plant vines, its pitchers will become more intermediate, with the tendril attaching more to the

side of the pitcher, and the pitcher itself changing shape to become more slender. The final pitchers, the

“upper” pitchers, are often very slender, or, in the case of the “toilet-bowl” Nepenthes, toilet-shaped, and

lighter in color than the lower pitchers. Upper pitchers will often be suspended in the air, and recent scientific

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observation suggests that, for many species, the upper pitchers are

designed to attract different prey than the lower pitchers.

Once a plant has reached a sufficient stage of maturity, it will

flower. Each Nepenthes plant is male or female; each plant has either

male or female flowers. Somewhere around 70% of plants are male.

The usually small and brown flowers are rather unremarkable. Seed

matures in capsules that split open when mature, flinging the tiny,

thin, brown seed into the wind to start the growing process all over

again.

In Cultivation

The most commonly cultivated Nepenthes are tissue cultured

hybrids that are designed to grow quickly in the lab-greenhouse

combinations that produce them, ship easily, and look good on

arrival. The most common of these hybrids is Nepenthes x ventrata, a

hybrid with orangey-red pitchers that is a cross between Nepenthes

alata and Nepenthes ventricosa. It can be grown in virtually any

conditions above freezing, and is very difficult to kill. For most

people, it is their first Nepenthes.

Generally speaking, widely-available, cultivated Nepenthes are

hybrids of one of three species, or a combination thereof - Nepenthes

alata, Nepenthes maxima, Nepenthes ventricosa. These three species have

well-deserved reputations for being nearly invincible. Their various

offspring can suffer through lack of water for a week or more and

still retain colorful pitchers. Their offspring can be put outside in the

powerful Florida sunshine or in a shady New England living room

and still produce pitchers.

After obtaining one or two of these hybrids, new growers

typically begin to research the vast array of Nepenthes species and

hybrids and soon find themselves collecting a variety of plants. Many

of the more specialized Nepenthes species and hybrids will be grown

either via seed or tissue culture, a method in which seeds or plant

parts are cloned to

produce a number of

N. maxima “Dark” x alata

genetically-identical

individuals. There is no specific advantage to either method,

but growers have noticed that some tissue cultured clones are

less tolerant of a variety of conditions than comparable seed-

grown plants, especially in Nepenthes.

The first step to cultivate Nepenthes successfully is

determining what plants match the conditions that can be

provided to them. (See the guide at the back of this chapter for

a detailed list of currently recognized species and their

distribution). Ultra-lowland plants, such as Nepenthes bicalcarata,

Nepenthes spectabilis x hamata

the Fanged Pitcher Plant, cannot be successfully grown next to

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highland plants, such as Nepenthes hamata, at least not long-term.

The second step is building a set-up that allows the cultivation of harder-to-grow Nepenthes varieties,

such as Nepenthes villosa, that typically require special set-ups for successful long-term cultivation. The

remainder of this chapter seeks to discuss some of those set-ups, both for some plants which are common in

cultivation and some plants which are highly desired in cultivation. This chapter’s remainder is divided into

five sections: Ultra-Lowland, Lowland, Intermediate, Highland, and Ultra-Highland.

Nepenthes aristolochioides x glabrata. In recent years, hybrids with Nepenthes aristolochoides have

become extremely popular. Many of these require temperatures similar to those required by Nepenthes

aristolochoides, i.e. cool-to-cold nights. This can be a problem for many growers in warmer climates.

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My standard growing guide for Nepenthes follows:

Media: Most Nepenthes grow well in a well-draining mix that retains water. In other words, they

should not be soaking wet but pleasantly moist. The best mixes incorporate materials such as high-

quality New Zealand or Chilean Sphagnum Moss, or (Coconut husk), orchid bark, or perlite. I often

compose a 50:50 mix of the moisture-retaining ingredients, such as sphagnum moss, and the airy,

draining ingredients, such as perlite.

Note: an old Carnivorous Plant Newsletter that can be found online suggests a mixture of 1:1:1: Leca

(Hydroponic) Clay: Seramis (Baked Clay): Lava Gravel (Lava Rock) as a good, sustainable alternative.

Numerous growers, myself included, have tried this mixture with various species of Nepenthes and can

definitively report that, while it works well, at first, the health of the plant slowly degrades. I would

stay away from this combination.

Moisture: Nepenthes, with the exception of Nepenthes smilesii that forms tubers, typically grow in an

environment with constantly moist media or very high humidity and damp media. Consequently,

most plants do well either in a hanging basket or growing in a tray with a few millimeters of water in

it at all times. The water level should fluctuate, even to the point of evaporating completely, but not

to the point of allowing the plant’s medium to become dry.

Humidity: Different species have different humidity requirements. Generally, ultra-lowland, lowland,

and many ultra-highland plants require high humidity, although all Nepenthes do better with higher

humidity. The easiest way to tell if a plant is getting enough humidity is if it is producing pitchers. If

the plant does not produce pitchers, it is probably not getting enough humidity (at least that is often

the primary cause). If it is producing pitchers but the pitchers are smaller than would be expected,

there is probably not high enough humidity. Additionally, some species like Nepenthes inermis, will only

pitcher when in high humidity.

Pot Size: My rule of thumb is to use a pot that is big enough to fit the Nepenthes root ball and leaves a

little room for it to grow. Generally, this means that the leaves extend slightly farther than the end of

the pot, but oftentimes large plants will be grown in pots that appear remarkably small for the size of

the plant. With the exception of a few species, like Nepenthes bicalcarata that prefer to be over potted,

pot size is not a major concern.

Feeding: Fertilizing Nepenthes is essential to their growth. Older grow guides state that feeding is not

necessary, but many empirical experiments have proven otherwise. Almost any soluble fertilizer that

is high in nitrogen would probably work, but I personally use MaxSea Grow 16-16-16 Water Soluble

Seaweed Plant Food Fertilizer applied to the pitcher and to the root ball on all my Nepenthes.

Temperature: The necessary temperature for any given Nepenthes depends on whether it is an ultra-

lowland, lowland, intermediate, highland, or ultra-highland plant. This is discussed in the following

sections of this chapter.

Dormancy: No Nepenthes requires any kind of dormancy.

Propagation: Nepenthes can either be propagated through seed or cuttings.

o

Seed: The hardest way to propagate Nepenthes is through seeds. Nepenthes seed is only viable

for a short period of time. Lowland Nepenthes typically have seed that is viable only for a few

weeks, while highland Nepenthes have seed that is viable for several months. One of the best

ways to ensure germination is to soak the seed in water with a tiny bit of hydrogen peroxide

(H202) for 24 - 48 hours prior to sowing on an appropriate medium in a suitable temperature

range. Unlike other carnivorous plant seed, Nepenthes seed should not be covered by plastic

wrap to induce germination. Without airflow, Nepenthes seedlings are highly susceptible to

fungus that kills the minute seedlings. After germination, the only trick is keeping the

seedlings alive. This can be significantly challenging because, before seedlings reach the size

of a small coin, they are highly susceptible to changes in environmental conditions.

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o

Cuttings: Cuttings are the easiest method of propagation. Cuttings can either be taken by

separating a basal growth from the main growing stem or by cutting the main growing stem

one-to-two leaves below the growing point (or four leaves for Nepenthes ampullaria). The

cutting should then have its leaves trimmed in half, horizontally. The cut ends should then

be dipped in rooting hormone and placed in damp long fiber sphagnum moss. Place the

entire cutting and moss into a plastic bag, seal, and place in bright light, but not direct

sunlight. Depending on the species, the cutting can root in two to six months.

Ultra-Lowland Nepenthes

Ultra-lowland

plants

are

those that typically grow from sea

level to 1,640 feet (500 m), and

experience very high levels of

humidity. Daytime temperatures

hover around 90° F (32° C) while

nighttime temperatures hover

around 75° F (24° C).

Ultra-lowlanders are among

the fastest growing and most

popular plants. When researching

Nepenthes for the first time, new

growers often find Nepenthes

ampullaria and Nepenthes bicalcarata

attractive and easy to obtain

plants. Both of these species,

some of the fastest growing

Nepenthes, can double in size in the

matter of a couple months, an

impressive growth rate when they

are a few inches across but a little

disconcerting when they grow to

be greater than a foot across.

N. ampullaria

Nepenthes ampullaria is one of

the most distinctive Nepenthes

species. Its short, squat pitchers

often grow as rosettes, almost

entirely lacking leaves, near the

base of a central climbing stem

Nepenthes ampullaria ‘Williams Red’ x ‘Harlequin’

and intermittently along its length.

The rotund pitchers are rarely

taller than three inches (8 centimeters) and feature a hood that is small and upright, providing no cover for

the pitcher contents. Unlike other species, Nepenthes ampullaria produces few intermediate or upper pitchers.

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Nepenthes ampullaria can often be found in damp,

shady forests with permanently waterlogged soils; as

such, it prefers wetter soils in cultivation. It has

evolved to feed primarily on leaf detritus and other

fallen objects rather than insect prey, as many other

Nepenthes species do. The upright pitcher hood and

clusters of pitchers allow the plant to capture as many

fallen objects as possible without impediment.

A number of color

variation

have

been

observed for Nepenthes

ampullaria. This comes as

no surprise given the

species wide distribution

across

several

large

islands in southeast Asia.

Some of these variations N. ampullaria basal pitcher.

have been elevated to

cultivar status, although none has yet been changed to

a variety or subspecies. The most common color

combinations include all green pitchers, green pitchers

speckled with brown, all red pitchers, red pitchers with

Nepenthes ampullaria “Bau Green”

a green lip, green pitchers with a red lip, pitchers

scattered with a variety of colors, and all brown

pitchers. Some color patterns, such as those with all brown pitchers, are reported to produce pitchers that are

nearly twice the normal size of those produced by this species.

One interesting feature of Nepenthes ampullaria is that its leaves have a fairly unique soft, fuzzy covering

after unfurling. The fuzzy covering is typically rinsed off by the frequent rainfall of the forest, but it can be an

interesting feature in a terrarium without rainfall.

N. bicalcarata

Undoubtedly, Nepenthes bicalcarata is one of the most

famous Nepenthes species. With lower and upper pitchers that

prominently feature two Dracula-like “fangs,” it is hard to

imagine a more fearsome “meat-eating” plant. There is just

something so sinister about it.

Despite its fearsome look and sharp fangs, Nepenthes

bicalcarata does not actively seek out blood. It feeds mostly on

the excrement of the carpenter ant species, Camponotus schmitzi,

and occasionally the ants themselves. The ants live in the pitcher

tendrils and protect Nepenthes bicalcarata from attacks from pests

such as weevils and pest fungi that would prevent the pitchers

from functioning as efficiently. Additionally, unlike other species

of ants which have a mutually beneficial relationship to a plant,

C. schmitzi is not territorial; the ants do not attack Nepenthes

Nepenthes bicalcarata

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bicalcarata’s prey animals. As a result, only about 42% of Nepenthes bicalcarata’s foliar nitrogen comes from ant

excrement, rather than the expected 90% from territorial ants.

Interestingly, recent research has also shown that Nepenthes bicalcarata has another mutually beneficial

relationship, one with Hardwicke’s woolly bat, Kerivoula hardwickii. K. hardwickii is well-known for frequently

roosting in the upper pitchers of Nepenthes hemsleyana and excreting into the pitcher, thus feeding the plant. K.

hardwickii has a similar relationship with Nepenthes bicalcarata. K. hardwickii roosts in the upper pitchers of Nepenthes bicalcarata, more frequently than Nepenthes hemsleyana. Nepenthes bicalcarata, however, is a less

preferential host to K. hardwickii than N. hemsleyana is.

Nepenthes bicalcarata

Much like Nepenthes ampullaria, Nepenthes bicalcarata is frequently found in forests with permanently

waterlogged soils, so it prefers wetter soils in cultivation. Unlike Nepenthes ampullaria, Nepenthes bicalcarata does

not stay small. In fact, it is one of the biggest Nepenthes species, often producing leaves in excess of a foot or

two only a year or so after producing leaves barely three inches (8 cm) in length. As a consequence, growers

should be prepared for rapid, sustained growth that will produce very large plants very quickly. This species

will often outgrow all but the largest terrariums within the span of two years.

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Lowland Nepenthes

Lowland plants are those that typically grow from 1,640 - 3,281 feet (500 - 1,000 m). They typically

experience high levels of humidity and day temperatures around 85° F (30° C). Nighttime temperatures

typically fall to around 70° F (21° C), although this is not always the case.

N. campanulata

Nepenthes campanulata is one of a

collectors’ favorite Nepenthes. This diminutive

Nepenthes has a small, compact growth

pattern. It does not produce upper pitchers.

In fact, it does not produce a climbing vine.

Instead, it’s small rosettes spread via

subterranean runners, much like Darlingtonia.

These result in new plants popping up near

the parent plant and rapidly growing to

maturity.

The pitchers of Nepenthes campanulata

grow only about 4 inches (10 cm) tall. These

dainty, yellow “bells” are charming, and,

unlike other toilet-bowl-type pitchers, remain

dry. A large portion of the pitcher consists of

the waxy zone while only a very small

portion holds water. Interestingly, despite a

lack of stickiness, Nepenthes campanulata

captures more flying insects as opposed to

crawling insects.

Nepenthes campanulata

In the wild, Nepenthes campanulata grows on limestone

escarpments overlooking the ocean in one small area of Borneo.

These escarpments have small pockets of moss and leaf debris

covering the limestone. Nepenthes campanulata grows in these small

pockets. Frequent rains and high humidity keep this species moist,

and slowly weather away the limestone escarpments.

In cultivation, growers often pot this species in a typical

Nepenthes mix consisting of sphagnum and perlite. This is a mistake.

Limestone, when wetted, slowly dissolves, releasing minerals. Some of

these minerals are essential for Nepenthes campanulata to grow well.

Therefore, a good potting mix will use around 50% limestone. The

remainder of the mix may be a standard Nepenthes mix or simply long-

fiber sphagnum moss.

Many growers treat this species as an intermediate. This is not

necessary unless the media mixture is not appropriate, i.e. lacking in

limestone.

Nepenthes campanulata

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N. gracilis

Nepenthes gracilis is one of the most widespread yet least cultivated species of Nepenthes. It is so widespread

that it is thought of as a common roadside weed in some countries! The small, graceful pitchers come in a

variety of colors and patterns, including, but not limited to: black, green, green with red speckles, and red.

These colors do not have “official” names, but many growers call their plants by the color of the pitchers.

Nepenthes

gracilis

is

an

extremely easy to grow lowland

plant as long as its media does

not dry out completely. (If the

media is allowed to dry out

completely,

the

plant

will

probably recover, but all existing

pitchers and leaves will die).

Unlike other lowland species,

Nepenthes gracilis prefers to grow

in high light conditions. (In the

wild, seeing Nepenthes gracilis

plants growing in open fields

where they are exposed to the

hot tropical sun all day long is

not uncommon).

In cultivation, plants with

green pitchers are more common

than any other color pattern,

although plants with red pitchers

are very popular in southeast

Asia. Plants with “black” (dark

purple) pitchers are rare in

cultivation and highly sought-

after. Maintaining solid-dark

coloring is difficult without full-

sun exposure. Mottled pitchers

are the result of insufficient sun

provided to these, or red pitcher,

plants.

One thing to note is that

many wild-collected seeds of

Nepenthes sold online are actually

Nepenthes gracilis “Black” pitchers in various stages of growth. Like

collected from Nepenthes gracilis,

many species, this species requires a high amount of light to maintain

not whatever species the seller

the dark coloration on its pitchers.

claims.

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N. rafflesiana / hemsleyana

Nepenthes rafflesiana is a highly variable,

and interesting Nepenthes species. Having

several

color

and

pitcher-structure

variations, this species has recently been

divided into several species and subspecies.

A number of “types” of Nepenthes rafflesiana

exist, including a “Giant” form that has

pitchers that rival Nepenthes rajah in size.

Not all “types” have been divided out from

the species, but some have. Most recently,

Nepenthes rafflesisana var. elongata was

Nepenthes x hookeriana

separated out and named Nepenthes

hemsleyana. That species is best known for its mutualistic relationship with a

species of bat ( Kerivoula hardwickii) that roosts in its upper pitchers during

the daytime. The droppings of the bat provide significant nourishment to

the plant.

All “types” of Nepenthes rafflesiana, including related species such as

Nepenthes hemsleyana, have lower pitchers which are remarkably different

from their upper pitchers. The lower pitchers are, almost universally,

bulbous with large wings ( ala), a slanting opening, and peristome. These

have adapted to become ineffective traps during several hours during the

day in order to lure large numbers of ants to the pitchers. Upon “turning

on” the pitchers are able to catch a large number of ants at once. Upper

pitchers, unlike lower pitchers, target flying insects. As a consequence,

these are slim and often have

small wings.

Nepenthes rafflesiana is an

easy plant to cultivate. It

prefers somewhat lower light

levels than some other lowland

species and does well in humid

environments. It is an ideal

candidate for a terrarium or on

a windowsill in a tropical or

subtropical

climate.

Unlike

Nepenthes hemsleyana27

some other species, Nepenthes

rafflesiana is not picky about media and will grow in just about any

media, although it seems to prefer a peat-heavy media.

Innumerable hybrids have been created with Nepenthes

rafflesiana. One of the most popular is Nepenthes x hookeriana, an

easy to grow hybrid with Nepenthes ampullaria as the other parent.

This hybrid is extremely popular with those first entering the

world of carnivorous plants, and it has been tissue cultured several

Nepenthes rafflesiana

times.

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Intermediate Nepenthes

Intermediate plants typically grow

from 3,281 - 4,921 feet (1,000 - 1,500

m). They do not typically require high

levels of humidity. In the wild, they

experience day temperatures around 80°

F (27° C) and nighttime temperatures

around 60° F (16° C).

Many of the most popular plants in

cultivation--and those with reputations

for being the easiest to grow--are

intermediate plants. These include, but

are not limited to, Nepenthes fusca,

Nepenthes

sanguinea,

and

Nepenthes

ventricosa.

N. boschiana

Bosch’s Pitcher-Plant, Nepenthes

boschiana, is a fairly easy intermediate

from Borneo. It technically belongs to

the Nepenthes maxima Complex, but it is

easily distinguishable from most species

in that complex. It possesses pitchers

very unlike Nepenthes maxima’s. In the

wild,

Nepenthes

boschiana

typically

experiences warmer temperatures than

other intermediates do. In cultivation,

growers found that it suffers and dies

back if given temperatures near 42° F

(5° C).

A young Nepenthes boschiana.

N. burkei / N. ventricosa

Nepenthes burkei is closely related to Nepenthes ventricosa in looks and temperament. Its main difference

from Nepenthes ventricosa is that Nepenthes burkei has green-yellow pitchers with a red peristome and red

spotting along the pitcher body. In contrast, Nepenthes ventricosa has nearly every other combination of colors.

In cultivation, most common Nepenthes ventricosa plants have red pitcher bodies and red peristome.

Nepenthes burkei and Nepenthes ventricosa are both extremely easy to grow. It is not uncommon for plants of

either species to thrive after being relegated to a neglected windowsill. As with most Nepenthes, higher light

and fertilizer will rapidly improve growth for both Nepenthes burkei and Nepenthes ventricosa.

N. robcantleyi

Formerly known as “black truncata” for its similarity to Nepenthes truncata, Nepenthes robcantleyi has become

remarkably popular among growers. Its popularity is likely due to its ease in cultivation and its large, showy

pitchers, which turn almost black in some clones.

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Nepenthes robcantelyi

Although Nepenthes robcantelyi is known for having a large, showy peristome, like Nepenthes veitchii, this trait

does not appear to pass down to hybrid offspring. In fact, among Nepenthes, Nepenthes robcantleyi may be

among the weakest of the species for hybridization. Very few hybrids show any strong Nepenthes robcantleyi

influence.

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Highland Nepenthes

Nepenthes jamban x dubia

Highland plants typically grow from 4,921 to

6,562 feet (1,500 - 2,000 m). Some require high levels

of humidity, but most do not. In the wild, they

experience day temperatures around 75° F (24° C) and

nighttime temperatures around 55° F (13° C).

N. jamban

One of the most desired “toilet bowl” Nepenthes,

Nepenthes jamban is currently a popular plant both as a

tissue-cultured and seed-grown plant. In its native

habitat, Nepenthes jamban grows with Nepenthes dubia,

another popular “toilet bowl” Nepenthes. Although

hybrids between the two are not uncommon, such

hybrids are still rare in cultivation.

Nepenthes jamban

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As with all “toilet bowl”

Nepenthes,

Nepenthes

jamban

produces upper pitchers that are

pinched at the bottom and large

and bowl-shaped at the top. Each

upper pitcher produces a viscous

fluid that allows the inside of the

pitcher to capture small insects by

being sticky, similar to a Pinguicula

leaf. The viscous pitcher fluid and

shape of the upper pitcher are

characteristics shared by Nepenthes

dubia, which is thought to be

closely related to Nepenthes jamban.

In cultivation, seed-grown

Nepenthes jamban plants appear to be

more tolerant of a wider range of

conditions

than

tissue-cultured

clones are. It is not clear why this

appears to be the case. Perhaps

intolerant seed-grown plants are

killed early by bad conditions, or

Nepenthes dubia with lower pitchers.

something is wrong with the

cloning process.

N. hamata

The most desired of all carnivorous plants has to be Nepenthes hamata.

It is known for its peristome, which is fashioned like so many sharp,

pointed teeth. In the wild, Nepenthes hamata is native to the mossy forests of

Sulawesi, where it experiences high relative humidity - near 100% at all

times - and, often, partially shaded conditions. The plant, which initially

forms a small rosette, rapidly develops into a tall, climbing vine, hanging

among the trees.

Most forms of the plant have green pitchers with dark purple-to-

black splotches on the lower pitchers. Upper pitchers are often all green.

Lower pitchers often have black peristome, while upper pitchers often

have green pitchers. In 2005, Ch’ien Lee announced the discovery of a new

Nepenthes hamata location where the plants were entirely red and covered in

a dense coat of brown hairs. This ‘hairy red’ form has not yet been

formally described, but will probably be described as a new species.

In cultivation, Nepenthes hamata has gained a reputation for being a

difficult highland species. Unlike many highland Nepenthes, it does not

typically do well on a windowsill. Instead, it needs to be kept in a humid

terrarium or greenhouse. Additionally, one should note that it is a

perennially expensive plant due to continual, large demand.

Nepenthes hamata

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Nepenthes lowii upper pitcher.28

N. lowii

Nepenthes lowii is, perhaps, the most iconic of the Nepenthes. It is known for its

fanciful upper pitchers. These pitchers are yellow on the outside and tightly

constricted in the middle, seemingly causing the red mouth to gap open. The pitcher

lid exudes a sticky, white nectar which is eaten by tree shrews ( Tupaia montana). These

shrews sit atop the pitcher mouth and excrete into the pitcher while eating the

nectar. Studies indicate that the plant receives between 57% and 100% of its foliar

nitrogen from shrew droppings.

The lower pitchers are less showy than the upper. These are best known for

their reddish coloration and thick coat of bristles underneath the pitcher hood. These

characteristics are also seen in the closely related Nepenthes ephippiata. Both Nepenthes

lowii and Nepenthes ephippiata often pass down the bristles on the underside of their

lids to hybrids.

In cultivation, Nepenthes lowii is an exceedingly slow growing plant. It is, perhaps,

the slowest growing Nepenthes. As such, it is a plant that requires special attention as,

unlike other species of Nepenthes, it is less able to bounce back from pests or

accidental injury.

N. lowii lower pitcher

115

CULTIVATING CARNIVOROUS PLANTS

N. rajah

The largest pitchers of the

Nepenthes genus belong to the King

Pitcher Plant, Nepenthes rajah. This

species is native to the serpentine

soils of both Mount Kinabalu and

Mount Tambuyukon in Sabah,

Borneo. At maturity, Nepenthes rajah

is an extremely large plant. Given

its immense size (up to a yard

(~one meter) across), it requires a

cultivation

setup

that

can

accommodate a gigantic plant.

Because of its large size and

massive pitchers, Nepenthes rajah is

not recommended for growers who

do

not

have

their

own

greenhouses.

In the wild, Nepenthes rajah has

a mutualistic relationship with a

mammal, two actually, a tree shrew

( Tupaia montana) and a summit rat

( Rattus

baluensis).

These

two

creatures have the same kind of

relationship with Nepenthes rajah.

The shrew visits mostly during the

daytime, whereas the rat visits

mostly during the nighttime. In

both cases, the animals seek the

sweet nectar produced on the

inside of the pitcher lid of the

lower pitchers. The animals are

attracted by the nectar’s scent and

also the lid’s color. (The lid reflects

light in such a way as to stand out

compared to nearby plants.) In

order to access nectar, the shrew or

rat sits on the upper pitcher

peristome. As the shrew or rat eats

the nectar, it defecates, providing

the plant with most of its required

nitrogen.

In cultivation, Nepenthes rajah is

a relatively easy highlander. It is a

It is easy to see how a small mammal could easily slip into a

slow grower which will all but the

Nepenthes rajah pitcher and drown. The pitcher mouth is quite wide.

largest enclosures within a decade

In some, an entire American football could easily fit inside.29

116

NATCH GREYES

of germination. As with other rare Nepenthes, Nepenthes rajah has been introduced to tissue culture. As with

Nepenthes dubia, the clones chosen for tissue culture appear to be slightly less robust than seed grown

individuals.

N. spathulata

Nepenthes spathulata is a perennial

staple in botanical gardens and university

collections thanks to its large pitchers,

which can exceed 16 inches (41 cm)

when mature. Nepenthes spathulata was

first collected by Maurits Anne Lieftinck

in January 1935 on an expedition up

Mount Tanggamus in Sumatra. Although

the status of the plant has changed over

time, Nepenthes spathulata has come to be

known as a morphologically variable

species. Recent field work indicated that

Nepenthes spathulata inhabiting Java may

be distinctive enough from Sumatra’s

Nepenthes spathulata to merit a separate

species distinction. However, more field

work needs to be conducted on this

matter.

In the wild, Nepenthes spathulata

grows both epiphytically and terrestrially.

It is typically epiphytic when growing in

mossy forest or lower montane forest,

and it is terrestrial when growing in

upper montane forest or on summit

ridges. Unlike other Nepenthes species,

Nepenthes spathulata infrequently produces

upper pitchers. Most pitchers produced

by the plant are lower pitchers.

In cultivation, Nepenthes spathulata

has proven to be an easy-to-grow

highland species. Mature specimens can

be seen in many botanical gardens

around the world. Interestingly, in recent

years, Nepenthes spathulata has proven to

be less popular among collectors,

meaning few specimens are available for

sale. Despite its lack of popularity among

collectors, Nepenthes spathulata makes an

easy windowsill plant for many growers

in subtropical and temperate climates.

Nepenthes spathulata

117

CULTIVATING CARNIVOROUS PLANTS

Ultra-Highland Nepenthes

Ultra-highland plants typically grow

above 6,562 feet (2,000 m) above sea level.

They often require high levels of humidity,

although this is not always the case. In the

wild, they experience day temperatures

around 70° F (21° C) and nighttime

temperatures around 50° F (10° C).

Many of the most desirable - and often

poached - plants belong to the ultra-

highland group. Unsurprisingly, this is also

the group with the lowest rate of cultivation

success. Much like Darlingtonia, ultra-highland

Nepenthes require constant temperature

monitoring. Even one day of hot

temperatures can kill the growth point of

these fragile plants and retard growth for

months.

Many growers only find success with

these plants after constructing expensive and

technically challenging “freezer” terrariums.

These are typically fashioned out of freezers,

or sometimes wine chillers, lit with LEDs,

and programmed to chill the air inside when

the temperature exceed a certain threshold.

A programmable thermostat also allows for a

nighttime temperature drop to near freezing.

None of these plants are easy to grow,

and none are recommended for new growers

Nepenthes aristolochioides

or those without the resources to create an

ultra-highland environment.

N. aristolochioides

Nepenthes aristolochioides is among the most unique of Nepenthes, and, unfortunately, one that is most

probably extinct in the wild. Its little hunchbacked pitchers open in the front and are a deeply reminiscent of

the genus Aristolochia, a Dutchman’s Pipe. The pitchers are small, about as big as a child’s fist, and remarkably

difficult to form in cultivation. Like other ultra-highlanders, Nepenthes aristolochioides only produces pitchers in

the most ideal conditions.

Nepenthes aristolochioides requires a relatively high level of humidity in order to pitcher successfully, and

temperatures in cultivation should never exceed 85° F (29° C). At night, temperatures ideally will fall around

50° F (10° C).

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NATCH GREYES

In recent years, Nepenthes aristolochioides has become one of

the most popular hybrid parents. Its influence on its progeny is

obvious. Unlike Nepenthes robcantleyi, which often does not have

a strong influence, Nepenthes aristolochioides does. As a

consequence, many of its hybrid offspring have pitchers that

look very much like Nepenthes aristolochioides. Unfortunately,

these hybrids also often require conditions closer to those of

Nepenthes aristolochioides.

N. edwardsiana / macrophylla / villosa

These

three

closely

related

Nepenthes are native to Mount Kinabalu

and Mount Tambuyukon in Borneo.

All three often experience temperatures

which drop to near freezing. As with

many other natives of those two

mountains,

Nepenthes

edwardsiana,

Nepenthes macrophylla, and Nepenthes

villosa grow in ultramafic soils in in

cool, mossy and subalpine forests, as

well as in cool, open areas. In all of

these areas, the relative humidity is

extremely high at all times. Such cool

to cold and humid atmosphere is

Nepenthes villosa

difficult to replicate in cultivation.

With their orangish colorations and toothy peristomes, these three species are

among the most desired of all ultra-highland Nepenthes among collectors.

Unfortunately, they are also among the most difficult to cultivate. The most common

setup in cultivation involves a modified chest freezer, which keeps the plant cold

while simultaneously exposing it to full sun. This is not the only possible set-up, but

N. macrophylla

certainly one of the easiest to build.

Recently,

Nepenthes

villosa has entered into

large-scale tissue culture.

Nepenthes edwardsiana and

Nepenthes macrophylla are

expected

to

follow

shortly. This change in

propagation methods has

allowed Nepenthes villosa to

become widely available.

This has allowed growers

to begin experimenting

with growing conditions,

A diagram of Mount Kinabalu showing Nepenthes

and plants to become

distribution, altitude, and climate.

markedly cheaper.

119

CULTIVATING CARNIVOROUS PLANTS

The following table of all current Nepenthes species includes their distribution, altitudinal distribution, and

classification into horticultural groups in order to facilitate care:

Species

Distribution

Altitudinal Distribution

Classification

abalata

Cylion, Cyo, Malalison

0 - 66 ft. (0 - 20 m)

Ultra-Lowland

abgracilis

Mindanao

2,198 ft. (670 m)

Lowland

adnata

Sumatra

1,969 - 3,927 ft. (600 - 1,200 m)

Lowland

alata

Luzon

1,640 ft. (500+ m)

Lowland

alba

Peninsular Malaysia

5,249 - 7,175 ft. (1,600 - 2,187 m)

Highland

Borneo, Peninsular

albomarginata

Malaysia, Sumatra

0 - 3,609 ft. (0 - 1,100 m)

Lowland

Borneo, Maluku Islands,

New Guinea, Peninsular

Malaysia, Singapore,

Sumatra, Thailand,

ampullaria

Other Small Islands

0 - 6,890 ft. (0 - 2,100 m)

Ultra-Lowland

anagasanensis

Sumatra

7,218 - 9,186 ft. (2,200 - 2,800 m)

Ultra-Highland

andamana

Thailand

0 - 164 ft. (0 - 50 m)

Ultra-Lowland

appendiculata

Borneo

4,757 - 5,577 ft. (1,450 - 1,700 m)

Highland

argenti

Sibuyan

4,593 - 6,234 ft. (1,400 - 1,900 m)

Highland

aristolochioides

Sumatra

5, 906 - 8,202 ft. (1,800 - 2,500 m) Ultra-Highland

armin

Sibuyan

0 - 2,461 ft. (0 - 750 m)

Lowland

attenboroughii

Palawan

4,757 - 5,663 ft. (1,400 - 1,726 m)

Highland

beccariana

Nias

0 - 2,625 ft. (0 - 800 m)

Lowland

bellii

Dinagat, Mindanao

0 - 2,625 ft. (0 - 800 m)

Ultra-Lowland

benstonei

Peninsular Malaysia

492 - 4,429 ft. (150 - 1,350 m)

Lowland

bicalcarata

Borneo

0 - 3,117 ft. (0 - 950 m)

Ultra-Lowland

bokorensis

Cambodia

2,625 - 3,543 ft. (800 - 1,080 m)

Lowland

bongso

Sumatra

3,281 - 8,858 ft. (1,000 - 2,700 m)

Highland

boschinana

Borneo

3,937 - 5,906 ft. (1,200 - 1,800 m)

Intermediate

burbidgeae

Borneo

3,937 - 5,906 ft. (1,200 - 1,800 m)

Intermediate

burkei

Mindanao

3,609 - 6,562 ft. (1,100 - 2,000 m)

Intermediate

campanulata

Borneo

328 - 984 ft. (100 - 300 m)

Lowland

ceciliae

Mindanao

4,921 - 6,168 ft. (1,500 - 1,880 m)

Highland

chang

Thailand

984 - 1,969 ft. (300 - 600 m)

Ultra-Lowland

chaniana

Borneo

3,609 - 5,906 ft. (1,100 - 1,800 m)

Intermediate

cid

Mindanao

2,526 ft. (770 m)

Intermediate

clipeata

Borneo

1,969 - 2,625 ft. (600 - 800 m)

Lowland

copelandii

Mindanao

3,609 - 7,874 ft. (1,100 - 2,400 m)

Intermediate

cornuta

Mindanao

3,281 ft. (1,000 m)

Intermediate

120

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Maluku Islands, Raja

danseri

Ampat Islands

0 - 1,050 ft. (0 - 320 m)

Ultra-Lowland

deaniana

Palawan

3,871 - 4,252 ft. (1,180 - 1,296 m)

Intermediate

5,577 - 10,499 ft. (1,700 - 3,200

densiflora

Sumatra

m)

Ultra-Highland

diatas

Sumatra

7,874 - 9,514 ft. (2,400 - 2,900 m)

Ultra-Highland

distillatoria

Sri Lanka

0 - 2,297 ft. (0 - 700 m)

Ultra-Lowland

dubia

Sumatra

5,240 - 8,858 ft. (1,600 - 2,700 m)

Ultra-Highland

edwardsiana

Borneo

5,240 - 8,858 ft. (1,600 - 2,700 m)

Ultra-Highland

ephippiata

Borneo

4,265 - 6,562 ft. (1,300 - 2,000 m)

Intermediate

epiphytica

Borneo

3,281 ft. (1,000 m)

Highland

eustachya

Sumatra

0 - 5,249 ft. (0 - 1,600 m)

Lowland

eymae

Sulawesi

3,281 - 6,562 ft. (1,000 - 2,000 m)

Intermediate

faizaliana

Borneo

1,312 - 5,249 ft. (400 - 1,600 m)

Lowland

flava

Sumatra

5,906 - 7,218 ft. (1,800 - 2,200 m)

Highland

fusca

Borneo

984 - 8,202 ft. (300 - 2,500 m)

Intermediate

gantungensis

Palawan

5,249 - 5,853 ft. (1,600 - 1,784 m)

Highland

glabrata

Sulawesi

5,249 - 6,890 ft. (1,600 - 2,100 m)

Highland

glandulifera

Borneo

3,609 - 5,577 ft. (1,100 - 1,700 m)

Intermediate

Bohol, Leyte, Luzon,

Mindanao, Mindoro,

graciliflora

Panay, Samar, Sibuyan

984 - 4,199 ft. (300 - 1,280 m)

Intermediate

Borneo, Peninsular

Malaysia, Singapore,

Sulawesi, Sumatra,

Thailand, Other Small

gracilis

Islands

0 - 3,609 ft. (0 - 1,100 m)

Lowland

gracillima

Peninsular Malaysia

4,593 - 6,562 ft. (1,400 - 2,000 m)

Highland

gymnaphora

Java, Sumatra

1,969 - 9,186 ft. (600 - 2,800 m)

Highland

hamata

Sulawesi

4,593 - 8,202 ft. (1,400 - 2,500 m)

Highland

hamiguitanensis

Mindanao

3,937 - 5,249 ft. (1,200 - 1,600 m)

Intermediate

hemsleyana

Borneo

0 - 656 ft. (0 - 200 m)

Ultra-Lowland

hirsuta

Borneo

656 - 3,281 ft. (200 - 1,000 m)

Lowland

hispida

Borneo

328 - 2,625 ft. (100 - 800 m)

Lowland

holdenii

Cambodia

1,969 - 2,625 ft. (600 - 800 m)

Lowland

hurrelliana

Borneo

4,265 - 7,874 ft. (1,300 - 2,400 m)

Highland

inermis

Sumatra

4,921 - 8,513 ft. (1,500 - 2,600 m)

Ultra-Highland

New Guinea, Schouten

insignis

Islands

0 - 2,789 ft. (0 - 850 m)

Ultra-Lowland

izumiae

Sumatra

5,577 - 6,234 ft. (1,700 - 1,900 m)

Highland

121

CULTIVATING CARNIVOROUS PLANTS

jacquelineae

Sumatra

5,577 - 7,218 ft. (1,700 - 2,200 m)

Highland

jamban

Sumatra

5,906 - 6,890 ft. (1,800 - 2,100 m)

Highland

junghuhnii

Sumatra

4,003 ft. (1,220 m)

Intermediate

Cambodia, Thailand,

kampotiana

Vietnam

0 - 1,969 ft. (0 - 600 m)

Ultra-Lowland

kerrii

Thailand

1,312 - 1,640 ft. (400 - 500 m)

Ultra-Lowland

khasiana

India

1,640 - 4,921 ft. (500 - 1,500 m)

Lowland

kitanglad

Mindanao

5,906 - 6,890 ft. (1,800 - 2,100 m)

Highland

klossii

New Guinea

3,051 - 6,562 ft. (930 - 2,000 m)

Intermediate

kongkandana

Thailand

0 - 164 ft. (0 - 50 m)

Ultra-Lowland

10,499 - 11,778 ft. (3,200 - 3,590

lamii

New Guinea

m)

Ultra-Highland

lavicola

Sumatra

6,562 - 8,530 ft. (2,000 - 2,600 m)

Ultra-Highland

leonardoi

Palawan

4,265 - 4,888 ft. (1,300 - 1,490 m)

Intermediate

lingulata

Sumatra

5,577 - 6,890 ft. (1,700 - 2,100 m)

Highland

longifolia

Sumatra

984 - 3,609 ft. (300 - 1,100 m)

Lowland

lowii

Borneo

5,413 - 8,530 ft. (1,650 - 2,600 m)

Highland

macfarlanei

Peninsular Malaysia

2,953 - 7,054 ft. (900 - 2,150 m)

Highland

macrophylla

Borneo

7,218 - 8,668 ft. (2,200 - 2,642 m)

Ultra-Highland

macrovulgaris

Borneo

984 - 3,937 ft. (300 - 1,200 m)

Lowland

madagascariensis

Madagascar

0 - 1,640 ft. (0 - 500 m)

Ultra-Lowland

mantalingajanensis

Palawan

5,577 - 6,841 ft. (1,700 - 2,085 m)

Highland

mapuluensis

Borneo

2,297 - 2,625 ft. (700 - 800 m)

Lowland

masoalensis

Madagascar

0 - 1,312 ft. (0 - 400 m)

Ultra-Lowland

D'Entrecasteaux Islands,

Maluku Islands, New

maxima

Guinea, Sulawesi

131 - 8,530 ft. (40 - 2,600 m)

Intermediate

merrilliana

Dinagat, Mindanao

0 - 3,609 ft. (0 - 1,100 m)

Lowland

micramphora

Mindanao

3,609 - 5,264 ft. (1,100 - 1,635 m)

Intermediate

mikei

Sumatra

3,609 - 9,186 ft. (1,100 - 2,800 m)

Ultra-Highland

mindanaoensis

Dinagat, Mindanao

0 - 4,593 ft. (0 - 1,400 m)

Intermediate

mira

Palawan

5,085 - 5,266 ft. (1,550 - 1,605 m)

Highland

mirabilis

Southeast Asia

0 - 4,921 ft. (0 - 1,500 m)

Lowland

mollis

Borneo

5,906 ft. (1,800 m)

Intermediate

monticola

New Guinea

4,593 - 8,596 ft. (1,400 - 2,620 m)

Ultra-Highland

muluensis

Borneo

5,577 - 7,874 ft. (1,700 - 2,400 m)

Highland

murudensis

Borneo

6,562 - 7,949 ft. (2,000 - 2,423 m)

Ultra-Highland

naga

Sumatra

4,921 - 6,562 ft. (1,500 - 2,000 m)

Highland

negros

Biliran, Negros

2,625 ft. (800 m)

Intermediate

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NATCH GREYES

D'Entrecasteaux Islands,

New Guinea, Raja

neoguineensis

Ampat islands

0 - 4,593 ft. (0 - 1,400 m)

Lowland

nigra

Sulawesi

4,921 - 8,858 ft. (1,500 - 2,700 m)

Highland

northiana

Borneo

0 - 1,640 ft. (0 - 500 m)

Ultra-Lowland

ovata

Sumatra

5,577 - 6,890 ft. (1,770 - 2,100 m)

Highland

palawanensis

Palawan

3,609 - 4,055 ft. (1,100 - 1,236 m)

Intermediate

paniculata

New Guinea

4,790 ft. (1,460 m)

Intermediate

pantaronensis

Mindanao

3,281 - 4,921 ft. (1,000 - 1,500 m)

Intermediate

pauana

New Guinea

0 - 4,265 ft. (0 - 1,300 m)

Lowland

peltata

Mindanao

2,838 - 5,364 ft. (865 - 1,635 m)

Lowland

pervellei

Seychelles

1,148 - 2,461 ft. (350 - 750 m)

Lowland

petiolata

Mindanao

4,757 - 6,234 ft. (1,450 - 1,900 m)

Intermediate

Busuanga, Coron,

Culion, Linapacan,

philippinensis

Palawan

0 - 1,969 ft. (0 - 600 m)

Ultra-Lowland

pilosa

Borneo

5,249 ft. (1,600 m)

Intermediate

pitopangii

Sulawesi

4,593 - 5,906 ft. (1,400 - 1,800 m)

Intermediate

platychila

Borneo

2,953 - 4,593 ft. (900 - 1,400 m)

Intermediate

pulchra

Mindanao

4,265 - 5,906 ft. (1,300 - 1,800 m)

Intermediate

Borneo, Peninsular

Malaysia, Singapore,

rafflesiana

Sumatra

0 - 3,937 ft. (0 - 1,200 m)

Lowland

rajah

Borneo

4,921 - 8,694 ft. (1,500 - 2,650 m)

Highland

ramispina

Peninsular Malaysia

2,953 - 6,562 ft. (900 - 2,000 m)

Intermediate

Borneo, Sumatra, Other

reinwardtiana

Small Islands

0 - 7,218 ft. (0 - 2,200 m)

Intermediate

rhombicaulis

Sumatra

5,249 - 6,562 ft. (1,600 - 2,000 m)

Highland

rigidfolia

Sumatra

3,281 - 5,249 ft. (1,000 - 1,600 m)

Intermediate

robcantleyi

Mindanao

5,906 ft. (1,800 m)

Intermediate

rosea

Peninsular Thailand

1,476 - 1,706 ft. (450 - 520 m)

Lowland

rowanae

Australia

0 - 262 ft. (0 - 80 m)

Ultra-Lowland

samar

Samar

0 - 3,281 ft. (0 - 1,000 m)

Lowland

Peninsular Malaysia,

sanguinea

Thailand

984 - 5,906 ft. (300 - 1,800 m)

Intermediate

saranganiensis

Mindanao

5,906 - 6,890 ft. (1,800 - 2,100 m)

Highland

sibuyanensis

Sibuyan

4,101 - 4,921 ft. (1,250 - 1,500 m)

Intermediate

singalana

Sumatra

6,562 - 9,514 ft. (2,000 - 2,900 m)

Ultra-Highland

Cambodia, Laos,

smilesii

Thailand, Vietnam

0 - 4,921 ft. (0 - 1,500 m)

Lowland

123

CULTIVATING CARNIVOROUS PLANTS

sp. Anipahan

Palawan

3,937 - 4,593 ft. (1,200 - 1,400 m)

Intermediate

sp. Misool

Raja Ampat Islands

0 - 98 ft. (0 - 30 m)

Ultra-Lowland

sp. New Guinea

New Guinea

4,921+ ft. (1,500+ m)

Highland

spathulata

Java, Sumatra

3,609 - 9,514 ft. (1,100 - 2,900 m)

Highland

spectabilis

Sumatra

4,593 - 7,218 ft. (1,400 - 2,200 m)

Highland

stenophylla

Borneo

2,625 - 8,530 ft. (800 - 2,600 m)

Intermediate

sumagaya

Mindanao

5,249 - 7,272 ft. (1,600 - 2,247 m)

Highland

sumatrana

Sumatra

0 - 2,625 ft. (0 - 800 m)

Ultra-Lowland

suratensis

Thailand

0 - 656 ft. (0 - 200 m)

Ultra-Lowland

surigaoensis

Mindanao

2,625 - 3,927 ft. (800 - 1,200 m)

Lowland

talaandig

Mindanao

3,281 ft. (1,000 m)

Intermediate

talangensis

Sumatra

5,906 - 8,202 ft. (1,800 - 2,500 m)

Highland

tboli

Mindanao

5,906 - 6,890 ft. (1,800 - 2,100 m)

Highland

tenax

Australia

0 - 262 ft. (0 - 80 m)

Ultra-Lowland

tentaculata

Borneo, Sulawesi

1,312 - 8,366 ft. (400 - 2,550 m)

Intermediate

tenuidon

Luzon

4,003 ft. (1,220 m)

Intermediate

tenuis

Sumatra

3,281 - 3,937 ft. (1,000 - 1,200 m)

Intermediate

thai

Thailand

1,640 - 3,937 ft. (500 - 1,200 m)

Lowland

thorelii

Vietnam

33 - 66 ft. (10 - 20 m)

Ultra-Lowland

tobaica

Sumatra

1,247 - 5,906 ft. (380 - 1,800 m)

Intermediate

tomoriana

Sulawesi

0 - 1,640 ft. (0 - 500 m)

Ultra-Lowland

New Guinea, Raja

treubiana

Ampat Islands

0 - 262 ft. (0 - 80 m)

Ultra-Lowland

truncata

Dinagat, Mindanao

0 - 4,921 ft. (0 - 1,500 m)

Lowland

ultra

Luzon

0 - 1,312 ft. (0 - 400 m)

Lowland

undulatifolia

Sulawesi

5,906 ft. (1,800 m)

Highland

veitchii

Borneo

0 - 5,249 ft. (0 - 1,600 m)

Lowland

ventricosa

Luzon, Panay, Sibuyan

3,281 - 6,562 ft. (1,000 - 2,000 m)

Intermediate

vieillardii

New Caledonia

0 - 2,789 ft. (0 - 850 m)

Ultra-Lowland

5,249 - 10,630 ft. (1,600 - 3,240

villosa

Borneo

m)

Ultra-Highland

Dinagat, Samar, Other

viridis

Small Islands

0 - 1,312 ft. (0 - 400 m)

Ultra-Lowland

vogelii

Borneo

3,281 - 4,921 ft. (1,000 - 1,500 m)

Intermediate

zygon

Mindanao

5,906 ft. (1,800 m)

Intermediate

124