The Encyclopedia of Spices and Herbs: An Essential Guide to the Flavors of the World - Padma Lakshmi (2016)
SPICES, HERBS, AND BLENDS FROM A TO Z
A
PREVIOUS SPREAD, CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT: advieh, aniseeds, annatto, asafoetida, Armenian spice mix, ajowan, allspice, amchur, and anardana
ACHIOTE
See Annatto.
ADVIEH
OTHER SPELLINGS: adwiya
Advieh is a Persian spice blend that typically includes cumin, coriander, cinnamon, pepper, cardamom, cloves, nutmeg or mace, and ginger, as well as dried rosebuds or rose petals. Simpler versions may be made with only cumin, cardamom, cinnamon, and dried rose petals or buds; others may include all the spices mentioned above as well as turmeric; and still others use dried lemon peel. Advieh has a pungent aroma, a fine texture, and a warm brown color. It adds a rich flavor to couscous, pilafs, and other rice dishes. It also seasons Persian stews, lentil dishes, and soups; blends for stews may also include saffron. Advieh can be used as a dry rub for grilled or roasted meats. Stirred into yogurt or mixed with oil, it serves as a marinade for grilled meats and vegetables. Some blends are simply sprinkled over rice dishes as a garnish before serving rather than used to season them. In some Middle Eastern countries, a version of advieh is used to spice haroset, the fruit and nut paste that is part of the traditional Passover seder plate.
AJMUD/AJMOD
See Radhuni.
AJOWAN
BOTANICAL NAMES: Trachyspermum ammi, Carum ajowan
OTHER NAMES: ajwain, carom/carum, bishop’s weed, lovage seeds (erroneously)
FORMS: whole seeds and ground
AJOWAN TEA Toast 1 teaspoon ajowan seeds and 1 teaspoon cumin seeds together in a small skillet. Combine with 1 cup water in a small saucepan and bring to a boil. Strain and sweeten with sugar to taste.
Ajowan is a member of the large Apiaceae family (formerly Umbelliferae) and a close relative of both parsley and caraway. Native to India and the eastern Mediterranean region, it is now also grown in Afghanistan, Egypt, Iran, and Pakistan, but India remains the major source. It is an annual herbaceous plant that resembles parsley; its seeds are tiny, ridged, and oval, looking like celery seeds, and range from light brown to grayish-green in color.
The seeds smell faintly of thyme; the fragrance becomes stronger if they are crushed. They are pungent, peppery, and slightly bitter, with a taste like thyme, but stronger, and undertones of cumin, another relative, and they leave a lingering numbing sensation on the tongue if chewed. Their flavor mellows slightly when they are cooked. Like thyme, ajowan seeds contain high levels of the volatile oil thymol, and ajowan is mainly grown for that essential oil, which has a variety of medicinal uses, as it is both a germicide and an antiseptic.
Ajowan seeds are most commonly sold whole but are occasionally available ground. They are so small that grinding is usually unnecessary, but if desired, this can be done at home with a mortar and pestle or spice grinder.
Ajowan pairs well with starchy foods like potatoes and root vegetables, legumes, and beans. In India, it is often added to dishes made with lentils and other legumes for its digestive properties as much as for its flavor. It is also used in flatbreads like rotis and in fritters and other deep-fried foods. It features prominently in the vegetarian dishes of the Gujarat region, and it is an ingredient in many curry blends, especially for fish and vegetable curries, and in the Ethiopian spice mix berbere. It is also added to chutneys and many pickles. Because of its strong flavor, ajowan should be used sparingly so it won’t overwhelm other flavors; a healthy pinch is enough to flavor a pot of rice or steamed cabbage. A mix of crushed ajowan, cumin, and coriander seeds makes a good seasoning for grilled chicken and fish.
MEDICINAL USES: Ajowan seeds are chewed as a digestive and to relieve intestinal distress, and ajowan tea (see sidebar) has long been used to treat indigestion. Ajowan is important in Ayurvedic medicine, and it is viewed as a powerful cleanser of the body. Traditionally, ajowan was prescribed to cure cholera and asthma. It is also believed to soothe colic.
STORING SPICES AND HERBS
Spices and dried herbs should be stored in a cool place (ideally, not in a decorative spice rack above your stove) away from direct sunlight. Seeds that are rich in oil, such as sesame seeds and poppy seeds, are best stored in the freezer for longer periods, as their high oil content means they can turn rancid quickly.
As a general rule, ground spices are best used within six months to a year, though some will retain their pungency longer—uncap the jar and sniff for freshness. Whole spices keep for much longer, at least a year and often for several years. Dried herbs should be used within six months or so—old dried herbs smell like dried hay.
Spice purveyors who sell their spices in bulk or large quantities (as well as other online sources) often also offer sets of sturdy glass jars with tight-fitting lids. If you buy spices in bulk, these can be a good investment, as they will keep your spices fresher for longer.
ALEPPO CHILE
See Red Pepper Flakes.
ALLSPICE
BOTANICAL NAMES: Pimenta officinalis, P. dioica
OTHER NAMES: Jamaica pepper, myrtle pepper, pimento
FORMS: whole berries and ground
ALLSPICE TEA Pour 1 cup boiling water over 1 to 2 teaspoons ground allspice and let steep for 10 to 20 minutes before drinking.
Allspice berries are the fruit of a tall tropical evergreen tree in the myrtle family. It is native to the West Indies; some sources believe it is also indigenous to parts of Latin America. Its Spanish name, pimenta, means “pepper,” because the early Spanish explorers, who were seeking the Spice Islands, thought they had reached their destination and mistook the berries for peppercorns. Today, allspice is primarily grown in Jamaica, the Caribbean, and South America; the best is said to come from Jamaica.
Allspice berries are still harvested by hand. They are picked when they are green and immature and then either sun-dried for up to ten days or commercially dried. When properly dried, the berries turn reddish-brown to purple-brown. Their rough surface conceals tiny seeds that rattle slightly when the berries are shaken (shaking the dried berries to see if the seeds rattle is the traditional way of determining whether they are dry enough). The outer “shells” actually have more flavor than the seeds themselves.
Allspice berries are faintly aromatic, but the flavor is pungent when they are ground. The berries are easy to grind, and it is best to buy them whole and grind them with a mortar and pestle or in a spice grinder as needed. Ground allspice is a rich, warm brown, and the taste is like that of a combination of spices—cinnamon, nutmeg or mace, and cloves, with peppery overtones—hence the name allspice. Some people, in fact, mistakenly believe that ground allspice is a spice blend rather than a single spice.
Allspice is widely used in the cooking of the West Indies and the Caribbean, most notably in Jamaican jerk seasoning for grilled chicken. In North America and Europe, allspice is most often an ingredient in cakes, cookies, and other baked goods and sweets. It is found in rich curries in northern India and in Middle Eastern stews and North African dishes such as tagines. It also seasons pâtés and sausages. Allspice is used as a pickling spice in many cuisines; in Scandinavia, pickled herring is made with allspice. The whole berries often flavor mulled wine or other hot drinks, as well as the liquid used to poach fruits such as pears. Allspice complements sweet spices like nutmeg and cinnamon, and it is an ingredient in apple pie and pumpkin pie spice blends. It is also important in the food industry, in ketchups, preserved meats, and some canned fish.
MEDICINAL USES: Allspice has traditionally been used to relieve stomachaches and other digestive problems. Folk medicine also prescribes it for toothaches, rheumatism, and a variety of other ailments, and it can be used to make a soothing tea.
AMCHUR
BOTANICAL NAME: Mangifera indica
OTHER NAMES: amchoor, aamchur, dried mango powder
FORMS: whole dried slices and ground
Amchur is dried green mango, most often seen as a powder but also sold as whole dried mango slices. The fruit is picked unripe, peeled, sliced, and sun-dried. Mango trees are native to India (in Hindi, am means “mango” and choor means “powder”), Burma, and Malaysia; they have grown in India for more than four thousand years.
The dried slices are light brown and the powder is pale tan or beige. Occasionally, turmeric is added to the powder, which gives it a yellowish hue. Amchur has a warm, fruity fragrance and an acidic, tart taste, with a slight fruitiness. It pairs well with vegetables such as cauliflower, eggplant, and potatoes and with legumes such as chickpeas. In India, it is used in potato fillings for samosas, pakoras, and other savory pastries, and in curries, soups, stews, lentil and vegetable dishes, chutneys, and pickles; whole slices are sometimes added to lentil and vegetable dishes. Amchur combines well with other spices such as cloves, coriander, and cumin, as well as ginger and chiles, and it is a key ingredient in the spice blend chaat masala.
Amchur is used as both a souring agent and as a meat tenderizer. It gives food a tart, tangy, sour taste without adding moisture, and it can be substituted for lemon juice in many dishes; use 1 teaspoon amchur powder in place of 3 tablespoons lemon juice. It sometimes stands in for tamarind as a souring agent. Like papayas, mangoes contain an enzyme that helps tenderize foods, so amchur is used in many marinades, particularly for meats and poultry that will be grilled or cooked in a tandoor oven.
ANARDANA
BOTANICAL NAME: Punica granatum
FORMS: whole seeds and ground
Anardana is dried wild pomegranate seeds. Wild pomegranate grows in northern India, Jammu, and Kashmir; Iran; and the southern Himalayas. The seeds, with the pulp surrounding them, are slowly air-dried and then used whole or ground.
The whole dried seeds are dark red to almost black, sticky, and somewhat jammy, with a hard pale seed in the center, and they tend to clump together. They have an acidic, slightly fruity taste. The medium-fine powder is reddish-brown and has a very fruity, slightly sour aroma and a subtle, slightly dry, sour-sweet flavor. For most dishes, the whole seeds should be dry-roasted in a skillet and then ground to a coarse or fine powder as desired.
Anardana is widely used as a souring agent in Iran and in India, particularly in northern Indian and Punjabi cuisines. With its tart, fruity flavor, it’s also a good alternative to tamarind. In India, it adds acidic tang to chutneys, relishes, and spice rubs for meat and seafood, as well as to lentil and rice dishes, braises, and certain Moghul-style preparations. Its unique flavor pairs well with herbs such as cilantro and mint. In the Middle East, anardana is used for breads and some pastries. The coarsely ground (or whole) seeds can be sprinkled over vegetable dishes or salads, including fruit salads.
MEDICINAL USES: Anardana is believed to help digestion and is used in Ayurvedic preparations for various ailments. It is high in vitamin C and potassium.
GRINDING SPICES
The traditional way of grinding spices is with a mortar and pestle, used in cultures around the world from Southeast Asia to Italy and Africa to Latin America. At its most basic, a mortar and pestle consist of a bowl-shaped container with what looks like a small club for grinding the ingredients. They may be made of marble, glass or porcelain, hardwood, or stoneware. Larger ones, with a mortar about 6 inches in diameter, are more useful than the small ones found in most gourmet shops.
The Mexican version of a mortar, called a molcajete (the Spanish word for “pestle” is tejolete), is made of basalt (volcanic rock) and stands on three legs. Some cooks outside of Mexico find it preferable to a regular mortar because its rough surface makes grinding easier and more efficient. (A molcajete should be “cured” by grinding away the roughest surfaces before it is used for the first time: Grind raw rice or coarse salt a handful at a time until it remains white rather than turning grayish. Then rinse the molcajete and tejolete thoroughly and dry them.)
Today, the easiest way to grind spices is with an electric coffee grinder (and these are now sometimes marketed as spice grinders). It is efficient and makes quick work of the task. Depending on the type and number of spices you are grinding, it may be more effective to grind them separately rather than together; grind hard spices such as coriander seeds first, then add softer spices such as cumin seeds. If you need a large amount of freshly ground black pepper—for spaghetti cacio e pepe, for example—try grinding it in a spice grinder rather than a pepper mill; the fragrance will be intoxicating. It’s really best to have a separate grinder reserved for spices, but if you do use the same grinder for both coffee and spices, clean it thoroughly—or grind some raw rice in it and then wipe it out—after grinding spices so that your next cup of coffee doesn’t taste like coriander.
Some recipes call for cracked or crushed peppercorns, cardamom pods, or other spices. You can pulse these in a spice grinder, but a better way is to crush them under a heavy skillet, or pound them with a rolling pin. (If you put them on a kitchen towel, they are less likely to hop all over the counter—or put them in a heavy-duty plastic bag.) Of course, you can also use a mortar and pestle.
ANISE
BOTANICAL NAME: Pimpinella anisum
OTHER NAMES: aniseed, sweet cumin, saunf
FORMS: whole seeds and ground
ANISE TEA Anise tea is believed to aid in digestion, relieve stomach cramps, and stimulate the appetite. Pour 1 cup boiling water over 1 teaspoon crushed aniseeds and steep for 10 to 15 minutes; strain before drinking.
Aniseeds, native to the Middle East, are one of the oldest-known spices. The plant is a delicate annual related to caraway, cumin, dill, and fennel. In fact, in India, both fennel seeds and aniseeds are called saunf because they resemble each other so closely. Anise is now grown in Turkey, India, Spain, North Africa, Greece, Mexico, Central America, and other temperate regions.
The small, oval, crescent-shaped ridged seeds are actually the split halves of what are called the plant’s fruits. They range in color from pale brown to greenish-gray, and they often have a bit of the fine stalk that is found in the center of the fruits still attached. They are sweet and aromatic, with a distinct licorice flavor and taste. Ground anise is a warm brown color. Aniseeds are best bought whole rather than ground, as the spice quickly loses its fragrance and flavor once ground. Look for seeds with a minimal amount of stalks and husks. If you are grinding the seeds at home rather than using them whole, toasting them first in a dry skillet will make them slightly brittle and easier to grind or crush.
Aniseeds pair especially well with fish and seafood and poultry. They enhance the flavor of stews, particularly beef, and are used in many other savory dishes, often in combination with dill, fennel, and/or coriander seeds. Anise is a popular seasoning both in India, where it is used in many seafood and vegetable dishes and in curries, and in Morocco. It is used in breads and other baked goods, including cakes and cookies, in Scandinavia (think rye bread), Germany, Italy, and other European countries. In India, the seeds are “bloomed” in hot oil and used as a finishing garnish for vegetable and lentil dishes.
The seeds have long been considered a digestive, and the raw or lightly toasted, or, occasionally, sweetened or candy-coated, seeds can be chewed as a breath freshener after meals. Anise is the base of many licorice-flavored aperitifs and liqueurs, including ouzo in Greece, pastis in France, sambuca in Italy, arrack in the eastern Mediterranean, and anisette in many countries. It is also widely used in confectionery.
MEDICINAL USES: In addition to their use as a breath freshener and digestive, aniseeds are believed to ease stomach cramps and help prevent flatulence (see Anise Tea). In Ayurdevic medicine, aniseeds are used to treat bronchial ailments, colds, and coughs.
ANNATTO
BOTANICAL NAME: Bixa orellana
OTHER NAMES: achiote
FORMS: whole seeds and ground
ANNATTO OIL Combine ¼ cup annatto seeds and 2 cups canola or other neutral oil in a saucepan and heat over medium heat just until small bubbles form around the seeds; do not overheat, or the oil can turn bitter. Remove from the heat and let cool completely, then strain the oil and store in the refrigerator.
Achiote is the Mexican name for what are often called annatto seeds in the United States and elsewhere. They come from a small evergreen tree that is native to Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central and South America. The tree’s heart-shaped red or brown seedpods are filled with small, hard, triangular seeds surrounded by reddish pulp. After being harvested, the seeds are cleaned and dried. They have a peppery, slightly bittersweet fragrance and a mild, musky flavor. Look for annatto seeds that are brick-red in color, not brownish. The seeds keep almost indefinitely.
Annatto is widely used as a dye and as a natural coloring agent for many foods, including cheeses such as Muenster and Leicester, margarine, butter, and cooking oils. In the kitchen, the seeds, in various forms, are also primarily used as a coloring agent, rather than as a seasoning.
In Mexico, the seeds are usually ground into a seasoning paste. In Oaxaca and Chiapas, the paste is pure ground seeds; in the Yucatán, it contains other spices and flavorings such as cumin and coriander seeds, black peppercorns, oregano, and garlic, and it is called recado rojo (rojo means “red,” and recado refers to a mixture of spices). Recado rojo is used to season chicken, pork, and fish, as well as tamales, that will be baked in banana leaves, and it is also added to soups and stews. Oil infused with annatto seeds (see Annotto Oil) will add color and a mild flavor to many dishes. Annatto is used in one form or another, including the ground seeds, throughout the Caribbean and Latin America, and it is an ingredient in many Filipino dishes.
MEDICINAL USES: Annatto can be used to relieve heartburn and stomach distress. In certain cultures, it is believed to improve liver function and lower cholesterol.
ARMENIAN SPICE MIX
OTHER NAMES: chaimen
Chaimen means “fenugreek” in Armenian, and that is one of the main ingredients in this versatile blend. It usually also contains paprika, cumin, cayenne, and garlic; allspice is often an ingredient as well. Chaimen is used to season basturma, the spicy Armenian air-dried cured beef. It is also added to soups, stews, and meat or vegetable dishes. And it can be mixed with olive oil (or even just water) or yogurt to make a delicious dip for flatbreads or vegetables.
ASAFOETIDA
BOTANICAL NAME: Ferula asafoetida
OTHER NAMES: asafetida, hing, stinking gum, devil’s dung
FORMS: blocks, granules, and ground
Asafoetida is not, in fact, a spice, although it is treated like one in Indian cooking. It is actually the dried resin, or latex, extracted from several species of ferula, or giant fennel, a tall perennial plant. Some varieties of ferula are poisonous; the plants that produce asafoetida are found primarily in Iran, in Afghanistan, and in Kashmir in India. The plant has a distinctive smell, and the aroma of asafoetida is pungent, slightly sulfurous, and very unpleasant—hence some of its more colorful common names (listed above). When it is cooked in small quantities with other ingredients, however, its flavor mellows.
The latex is harvested from incisions made in the roots of the ferula plants over a period of time; the process of gathering the milky liquid can take up to several months. The hardened latex is collected and further processed into various forms. Blocks of asafoetida are initially a pale creamy color but darken to reddish and then reddish-brown as they age. Asafoetida is also sold in granules or as a powder, which is the easiest form to use. The tan or brown powder is usually mixed with a starch such as wheat flour or rice flour for ease of use; the rice flour version is generally considered of better quality. Turmeric is sometimes added as a coloring agent, giving the powder a yellowish hue. In any case, asafoetida should always be stored in a tightly sealed container because of its off-putting aroma.
Asafoetida is used primarily in Indian cooking. The powder should generally be fried in oil before it is added to the main ingredients; other spices may be added along with it, though when mustard seeds are used, they are fried in the oil first. Other complementary spices and aromatics include cumin seeds, curry leaves, dried chiles, ginger, and garlic. (Asafoetida is one of the ingredients in chaat masala.) A pinch or two of asafoetida is enough to flavor a pot of lentils or chickpeas or of vegetables such as potatoes, cauliflower, onions, peas, or quick-cooking greens; it is added to many vegetarian dishes. It also seasons fish curries and various pickles. Some have likened the aroma and flavor of asafoetida to those of pickled or even fermented garlic, and in India, Brahmins and Jains, who do not eat garlic, turn to asafoetida as a substitute. It adds a pungent, slightly fermented and sulfuric flavor that is akin to but much lighter than that of garlic or other alliums.
MEDICINAL USES: In India, asafoetida is prescribed for bronchitis and other respiratory problems; it is also believed to prevent flatulence (hence its inclusion in many dishes made with beans, lentils, and other legumes).